The terrifying story of the demonic doll Annabelle

 If you know Ed and Lorraine Warren, you must have heard about the Annabelle doll too. The rag toy was one of the most dangerous haunted objects the Warrens studied. Demonologists in the 1970s at all costs wanted to help two young nurses, whom Annabelle turned their lives into a nightmare. This is the story of a demon doll that will make you sleepless in the evening.

Ed Warren married Lorraine in 1945. The couple immediately became fascinated by each other, especially since the young people had similar interests and paranormal abilities. Ed experienced inexplicable supernatural phenomena from an early age, and Lorraine was able to communicate with the spirits of the dead. Mr. and Mrs. Warren founded the New England Society for Psychological Research in 1952 to help people under attack by supernatural forces. The married couple conducted séances, cooperating, inter alia, with exorcists and the church. They have often solved puzzles that the average person finds inexplicable.

The demonologists had their hands full. More people who were witnesses of supernatural phenomena came to them. Some desperately asked the Warrens for help, unable to cope with the evil around them. Ed was for a long time the only secular demonologist the Vatican recognized. Lorraine was a true medium, so she had the gift of clairvoyance and communication with the spirits of her ancestors. Their private Museum of Occultism often received various exhibits related to matters investigated by the couple. The Warrens shut the museum on four triggers to make sure all things were blessed and safe from the rest of the world. The Annabelle ragdoll has become the most secure item in the museum's basement. The Warrens locked it in a glass case with the words "Don't open it!"

In 1968, a certain Donna, a nurse from England, received an unusual gift for her birthday. Her mother handed her a rag doll named Raggedy Ann. Even though the toy was not very pretty, Donna decided to keep it. The woman said that keeping the doll at home would certainly please her mother. But she had no idea where to put her. It was too big on the desk, it kept falling from the windowsill, and there was no room on the furniture. So Donna set her down on the bed in her room. When she had put together Rag Ania, she called Angie - her roommate and friend from work. Angie was scared of the rag toy at first but finally decided that she wasn't sleeping in this room. Thus, the doll lived under a common roof with the nurses.

The next days passed calmly. After a month, however, it started to feel… strange at home. One evening, Donna, returning from work, noticed that the doll was not sitting on the bed as she had left it. In the morning, the toy was leaning against the pillow, and now her head was resting on the mattress. Donna checked the window in the room. It was closed. The woman took it as an accident and forgot about the case. A few days later it happened again, but Donna turned a blind eye again. Day by day, however, it started to get more and more disturbing. Every time Donna came back from work, Rag Ania was sitting differently. Donna told her friend from the hospital about the whole situation. The women decided to check what is really going on with the doll. The next day they left the toy with their arms crossed. After returning from work, they discovered that Rag Ania… spread her hands.

Later it got worse. The doll began to change not only its position but also its position. She no longer sat on the bed, but for example on a chair and on the floor. She wandered between the roommates' rooms, which scared her friends a lot. The terrified nurses decided to check if there was a burglar in their apartment from time to time. They have set a trap. They fastened locks on the windows and placed slippery rugs on the floor. If someone stood on one, they would immediately move it along with the door. Donna and Angie would then know that someone was making fun of them. The trap did not work. Szmaciana Ania kept changing her location.

One day the nurses noticed that the doll began to hover above the bed. After a few seconds of levitation, it fell violently to the floor. When they picked up the toy, they discovered there were traces of blood on the doll's hand and body. It was too much. Donna called a psychic - a stranger woman in the area who allegedly investigated paranormal phenomena. Upon arrival, the woman explained to the terrified nurses that 7-year-old Annabelle Higgins had once lived in their rented house. The girl died here in mysterious circumstances, and her spirit wandered from room to room. Annabelle chose Szmaciana Ania as a link with the human world. The story of the girl's lonely spirit touched Donna and Angie. They decided that the spirit of Annabelle - whose name they later christened the doll - would remain with them. The women promised themselves that they would try to live in harmony with the doll. And perhaps she will repay them for their concern and will not scare them anymore. Donna and Angie, however, did not know how wrong they were.

The nurses' decision did not like Lou, Donna, and Angie's friend. He found that living with a possessed doll was not a wise idea at all. The man suggested his friends throw out Rag Ania, who threatened their life. He did not suspect that the doll actually had terrible intentions towards her roommates.

One day Lou came to Angie and Donna to study the itinerary of their weekend trip with her friends. The three of them sat in Angie's room, planning the upcoming expedition. At one point they heard a noise coming from Donna's room. Lou ran out of the room feeling as if someone had broken into the apartment. When he entered Donna's apartment, everything suddenly fell silent. The man turned on the light and noticed Annabelle lying on the floor. At the same moment, Lou collapsed to the ground, feeling a shooting pain in his chest. The nurses ran to him right away. When they turned the man on his back, it turned out that his shirt was torn. The clothes soaked blood faster and faster. It turned out that the man's chest was cut. There were clear traces of… claws on it. Lou never came back to his friends' apartment again. Was that what Annabelle wanted?

Nobody could handle the possessed doll. Police, doctors, priests from the local church. Nobody. The nurses found out about the Ed and Lorraine Warren Association for Psychological Research. They decided to contact the couple and ask for quick help. A pair of demonologists came to them the same day. On the spot, the Warrens stated that the doll was not haunted by an ordinary ghost. What he lived with the nurses was much worse than he was. Donna and Angie shared an apartment with a… demon. It was he who moved the doll, making the nurses believe that the toy was alive. He took advantage of the naivety of women who believed in the story about the deceased Annabelle. Their minds became open, and a formidable demon took advantage of this and moved in with the nurses.

The Warrens called an exorcist they knew. The latter, in turn, performed exorcisms for several hours, which expelled the demon from the apartment of young women. He also blessed every corner of the house so that nothing bad would happen in it again. The Warrens took the doll with them just in case and put it in a padlocked room in the basement. In order not to pose a threat, they locked Rag Ania in a glass case.

The story seems incredible, but it really happened. The possession of the Raggedy Ann rag doll fascinated horror film directors to such an extent that, based on this story, they already made three parts of Annabelle - a series of horror films inspired by the events of 1968. How much truth was smuggled into suspenseful films about Annabelle? Find out for yourself by playing one of the three horror movies about the demon doll.

Bibliography:

• Gerald Brittle: Ed and Lorraine Warrens. Demonologists, Esprit Publishing House, Krakow 2016
• Robert David Chase: The Visitation. True Stories, Replika Publishing House, Poznań 2019

How did the 12 apostles of Christ die? We bring you little-known facts.

 Their task was to preach the Gospel, to carry the teachings of Jesus Christ into the world. However, there was considerable danger in doing so, as the new religion was not welcomed everywhere. Most of the apostles were martyred by crucifixion. Thus died Peter, Andrew, James, Philip, and perhaps Simon. Mateusz and Jakub died by being beheaded with a sword. Bartholomew was skinned and Tomasz was pierced with a spear. John was the only one to die a natural death, and after Christ was handed over, Judas committed suicide. The one who took his place also died a terrible death - Maciej was stoned to death.

The term "Apostle" is derived from the Greek word "Apostolos" meaning a messenger. According to the New Testament, Jesus Christ chose twelve disciples to become his companions and entrusted them with the mission of spreading Christianity on earth. Their number was to symbolize the rebirth of the twelve peoples of Israel, a new hope for the chosen people.

Jesus' public activity lasted several years. It began with baptism by John the Baptist on the Jordan River. Shortly thereafter, the twelve disciples were chosen to accompany Jesus until he died in agony on Golgotha, near Jerusalem. Unfortunately, most of the students also died a martyr's death. Only one of them died a natural death.

Simon Peter

Simon called Peter. He is always mentioned as the first and beloved disciple of Jesus among the apostles. He became the first bishop of Rome - the pope of the Catholic Church.

The date of his birth is unknown. He came from Bethsaida, a town on Lake Gennesaret. Simon Peter's father was John. It is known that he was married - his wife was to be St. Perpetua, and the fruit of their relationship was a daughter - St. Petronella.

He died in Rome by crucifixion. It most likely took place in 64 CE. during the persecution of Christians by Emperor Nero, accused of setting the city on fire. Some researchers locate Peter's martyrdom in AD 67, but both dates are equally uncertain. The Apostle was to tell his tormentors that he was not worthy to depart like his Teacher and that he, therefore, died by being crucified upside down.

Andrew

Andrzej was Peter's brother. At first, he was a disciple of John the Baptist, but he and his brother joined Jesus. After receiving the gifts of the Holy Spirit, Andrzej began preaching the Word of God in Byzantium. According to the legend, he reached the lands where the city of Kyiv developed in later years.

Andrew died, like his brother, a terrible death. He was taken from the Greek city of Patras between 62 and 70. He was stretched on crosses in the shape of the letter X, which is the first letter of the name "Christ" in Greek.

This form was later dubbed the "Saint Andrew's Cross" and is now displayed in front of railroad crossings as a road warning sign.

James the Greater

Another disciple of Jesus was James, known as the Greater. He was the son of Zebedee and Salome, who also occasionally accompanied Christ. James and his brother John earned their living with Peter as fishermen on the Sea of ​​Galilee.

When Jesus sent his disciples to preach His teaching to the world, James the Greater was to go to the Iberian Peninsula, from where he soon returned to Judea, where he became the first bishop of Jerusalem.

James was the first of the apostles to die in the name of the Gospel. This took place between AD 40 and 42. He was condemned to death by the King of Judea - Herod Agrippa - and therefore his death can be considered "less terrible" or more humane if you can see it that way. Jacob died with a sword. Shortly before his death, he was to convert his executioner, and his body was supposed to miraculously reach Spain, where a special place of his worship still functions - Santiago de Compostella.

John the Evangelist

John the Evangelist's origins as a disciple of Jesus were the same as that of his brother James. He was probably the youngest of the apostles. He is spoken of as the beloved disciple of Christ, one of the most trusted. Together with his brother, they were nicknamed "sons of thunder."

Only John the Evangelist out of Christ's twelve disciples did not end his life in torment. He was fortunate enough to belong to the people who died a natural death. He died around AD 100 in Ephesus.

Philip

Philip was another of the apostles from Bethsaida. He was probably married and also had daughters.

Little is known about his fate after Christ's ascension. Even as to his death, there are several versions of her circumstances, but they are all equally terrible. He was to die in Hierapolis in 80 CE. One legend claims that he was hanged on a pole, another that he was crucified and stoned to death.

Nathanael

Apostle of two names, though sometimes considered to be two different persons. He was to be among Christ's disciple's thanks to Philip. It is known that he preached the Word of God in Armenia, India, Arabia, and also Ethiopia.

He died around 70 in what is now Armenia. It can be said without exaggeration that he passed away in torments that none of the other apostles experienced. The martyred man was stretched out on the cross and skinned alive. Then he was crucified and beheaded.

Thomas

Little is known about him, but most likely he was also a fisherman. Perhaps he had siblings and, according to some gnostic movements, was to be the twin brother of the Lord himself. Thomas functions in tradition as an "unbeliever", although a "non-believer" would be preferable. It was he who was the only one of the apostles absent during the revelation of the risen Christ, he did not want to believe the words of his companions about Jesus later.

He was one of those Christ's disciples who died far from home. He was martyred in India, where he was on a Christianization mission. He was inflicted terrible torments, taking his life by stabbing him with a pike or a sword.

Matthew - Levi

Matthew was from Galilee, from the city of Nazareth. He also had a middle name - Levi - and was the son of Alphaeus. Before joining Jesus, he was a tax collector, collecting payments from Jews for Rome.

Matthew is one of the apostles we are not sure about or where they died. We only know about them that they were martyred. In the case of Matthew, the date of death is around AD 60. The place of death is either Ethiopia or Persia. Most likely he was beheaded with a sword.

Simon the Canaanite

Simon the Canaanite also called the Zealot, is the least known of the apostles. He preached the Gospel from North Africa to Great Britain, traveling with another apostle - Jude Thaddeus.

According to sources, the disciples died in Persia or the Caucasus, and Simon could also have died in Jerusalem. They probably died by crucifixion or cutting them in two with a saw. It is worth noting, however, that on the occasion of Judy Tadeusz's death, padding with sticks is mentioned as the cause.

Jacob

Jacob, son of Alphaeus and Mary, is known as the Lesser (or the Younger). He was the brother of Juda Tadeusz. After Christ's ascension, he took care of the development of Christianity in Jerusalem, where he was to serve as a bishop.

He died a terrible death in AD 62. Fearing its importance, the Pharisees arrested him and led him to the Sanhedrin, who condemned the apostle to stone and ordered him to execute the sentence immediately. The condemning high priest, however, was effectively removed from office, although this did not restore Jacob to live.

Juda Tadeusz

Juda Tadeusz was the brother of Jakub the Younger. According to sources from the 2nd century, he was to have a wife and children. It is assumed that he was an educated person. He was one of Jesus' later disciples, and therefore the Scriptures devote less space to him.

There are several versions regarding his death. Due to the fact that he accompanied Simon on some journeys, it is sometimes considered that the apostles died together. However, it is sometimes considered that they died separately - Juda Tadeusz was to have died a martyr's death in Lebanon or in Persia around 80 AD. It is assumed that he died after being beaten with sticks.

Judas Iscariot

Judas Iscariot is always mentioned as the last of Christ's twelve apostles. Little space is devoted to his life and origins, with a greater focus on the role he contributed to Jesus' death on the cross. He was to sell the Teacher for thirty pieces of silver.

Gospel of St. Matthew reports that after Jesus was betrayed, he committed suicide. It is assumed that he hanged himself, although after Peter's words it can also be assumed that he was thrown upside down from a mountain. He died as the first of the disciples, but it is difficult to compare his death with the martyrdom to which the other apostles were subjected.

After Judas' suicide, Matthias was appointed to the group of twelve, who was also a witness of Christ's teaching from the moment of his baptism. He also joined the group of those who died a tragic death for their faith. After many people were converted, he was accused of blasphemy and brought before the Sanhedrin. There he was sentenced to stoning. There are, however, the writings of the Fathers of the Church according to which he was to die a natural death.

Apart from John, who died a natural death, the other apostles died as martyrs. The trust that Jesus Christ placed in them and their evangelizing missions led them to be martyred in the name of the Christian faith. Like many other Christians, not only in the first centuries of the development of this religion.

Bibliography:

• Bosak P. C., Jesus Christ and the Apostles, Petrus, Kraków 2020
• https://brewiarz.pl/czytelnia/swieci/10-28.php3 (accessed: March 4, 2021)
• Kelly J. N. D., Encyclopedia of Popes, State Publishing Institute, Warsaw 1997
• The Holy Bible of the Old and New Testaments, Pallottinum, Poznań - Warsaw 1971

Air crash in Gibraltar - General Sikorski's last flight

 On July 4, 1943, a plane crash took place in Gibraltar. 16 people died in the crash, including General Władysław Sikorski - the Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Armed Forces. The air accident is still highly controversial to this day. It is not known what the real causes of the tragedy were. How did the Gibraltar disaster happen? What are the theories about the plane crash? Could it be an assassination attempt? Or maybe the tragedy was the result of the pilot's inexperience? Check out the highlights of the Gibraltar plane crash and see the conclusions reached by the investigation into the crash.

In May 1943, General Władysław Sikorski traveled to the Middle East to inspect the Polish army. He was to spend several weeks there inspecting it. On 24-25, he went to Cairo on a transport plane, which was piloted by Eduard Prchal - a Czech pilot. This plane was officially not assigned to Sikorski, but it was systematically making communication flights. General Sikorski found out that Prchal is Czech. So he decided to use this fact politically to improve the image of our country - at that time Poland did not have very good relations with Czechoslovakia. General Sikorski asked Marshal Arthur Tedder, who commanded the Middle East Air Force, that the Czech pilot should take command of the machine during Sikorski's return. However, it was necessary to change the crew - Eduard Prchal flew to Cairo with the AL616 plane. The AL523 Liberator plane is scheduled for the return of General Sikorski. The day before the catastrophe, the general flew it to Gibraltar.

The Liberator plane was officially a transport machine. So his task was to transport goods, not passengers. At the rear of the fuselage, there were only 6 seats, which were two longitudinal benches facing each other with their backs. In the middle, there was a bomb chamber and a part intended for transport. When more than 6 people traveled with the machine, people had to lie down on luggage in the bomb bay. On July 4, 1943, 17 people were to leave Gibraltar with General Sikorski. Some people believe, however, that up to 24 people could have been aboard the plane. However, we will probably never know how many people actually returned on this plane. There is insufficient evidence.

The plane took off from the airport in Gibraltar immediately after receiving permission from the control tower. After only 16 seconds, about 600 meters east of the end of the runway, the machine fell into the sea. The body of General Władysław Sikorski was fished out of the Alboran Sea on the same day. What was the cause of the disaster? It is not known. There is no recorded record of the plane's route. Did the Liberator collide with the water surface right away? Or maybe he was soft on it? Those who insist on the second thesis say that the plane remained afloat for a while before it sank - it was reportedly about 6 minutes. Only later did the machine go to the bottom.

The British military court commission investigating the circumstances of the disaster in Gibraltar concluded that the cause of the tragedy was the blockage of the elevator. How could such a failure occur? This could not be determined exactly. Mieczysław Jan Różycki (former military pilot and crash researcher) believes that the plane broke off the runway, but had a problem with ascending. After a dozen or so seconds, he fell into the sea, hitting the water at a speed of about 265 km / h. When the plane crashed into the water, the rescue operation began. 16 bodies were found, including those of General Władysław Sikorski. However, the body of, among others, Gen. Sikorski's aide-de-camp and the daughter of a Polish general - allegedly on that day onboard the plane. Has anyone managed to survive the catastrophe? Yes, the only survivor was the Czech pilot Eduard Prchal.

The Gibraltar plane crash did not take as many casualties as the Kabaty Forest crash or the shooting down of a Boeing 747. But there was much more controversy over the tragedy. When Sikorski visited Gibraltar for the first time, a minister in Sikorski's government staying in London (Karol Popiel) received a strange phone call. Popiel's interlocutor said that General Władysław Sikorski will die in a plane crash over Gibraltar. Of course, this was considered a distasteful joke. However, the black scenario of the interlocutor really happened. At that time, various theories began to be drawn about the attempts to assassinate the Polish general. By a strange coincidence, two planes which Sikorski had previously flown had accidents. One of them, General Sikorski, even had to make an emergency landing in Montreal. Case?

When Władysław Sikorski died, the position of our country was weakened. Stalin's policy immediately began to isolate Poland. The Germans also tried to take advantage of the situation - they drove a wedge into Polish-Allied relations almost immediately. Was the plane crash in Gibraltar a planned operation to get rid of General Sikorski, who was inconvenient for the allies? Historians are still not unanimous on this point.

The plane that fell into the sea belonged to the British. So they conducted a short investigation to find out the cause of the crash. A military court commission was appointed to investigate the case. Apparently, due to the importance of the accident, it was not decided to entrust this task to the office for investigating air accidents. It is surprising, especially since it was the office that had by far the best competence to investigate this type of accident.

The military court heard selectively from witnesses, so it did not manage to collect all the testimonies - perhaps the most important ones. Ultimately, the commission concluded that the cause of the crash was a jammed altitude control system in the aircraft. The collected evidence was later classified. Is it possible that we do not know about many of them to this day? Perhaps. This is indicated, among others, by Archival photographs found in 2016 from an investigation that was believed to be lost.

There have been many attempts to explain what led to this terrible tragedy. Due to the lack of sufficient and unequivocal evidence, establishing the truth turned out to be a huge problem. Here are some of the most popular theories about the cause of the plane crash in Gibraltar.

1. The rudder was blocked by a bag of mail - experienced aviator Jan Bartelski, who, among others, he fought with Germany in 1939, he analyzed in detail the catastrophe in Gibraltar. He stated that the air tragedy may have been caused by bags of mail that probably got stuck between the elevator and the horizontal stabilizer. Perhaps it was the heavy bags, which weighed even 7 kg, that were the cause of the plane crash. Did they actually block the rudder of the machine?
2. The assassination of gen. Sikorski - historian David Irving in his publication Accident. The Death of General Sikorski noted that the participation of third parties cannot be excluded. He suggested that the tragedy could have occurred through sabotage. The journalist Dariusz Baliszewki said that the plane crash in Gibraltar was the strangest in the history of aviation - even stranger than the shooting down of a Boeing 747. How is it possible that the plane took off and landed just a few hundred meters from the shore? Perhaps it was an attack, supervised from the beginning by the British secret services? Were they then under pressure from the ambassador of the Soviet Union? Ivan Majski, who was the ambassador, probably did not know at all about General Sikorski's stay in Gibraltar.
3. Aircraft overload - Jerzy Zięborak, who is the author of the book "Study of the Liberator AL 523 Gibraltar crash 1943" believes that the tragedy was caused by overloading the aircraft. At the time of the transition to undercut, the load and passengers probably shifted rearward, so the center of gravity of the machine also shifted rearward. An additional reason could also be incorrect activation of the autopilot in the plane. In his deliberations, Zięborak used the data contained in the report of the British Investigation Commission, as well as information from accident witnesses and the aircraft's documentation.
4. Pilot error - pilot Mieczysław Jan Różycki pointed out Eduard Prchal's little experience in flying an airplane, as well as a complete lack of experience in commanding a heavy transport machine. The co-pilot (Stanley Herring) who assisted Eduard also had no such experience. The plane commanded by Prchal on the day of the crash was really difficult to fly. The AL523 was also a machine belonging to the first AL production series, so the plane was not well polished. Prchal and Herring practically did not know this particular model at all.

Was the plane crash in Gibraltar the result of the pilot's inexperience? Or maybe the tragedy was caused by the overloading of the machine? Was the failure of the AL523 Liberator airplane model contribute to the crash? Or maybe it was an attack on General Sikorski? The final result of the investigation into the cause of the crash, obtained by a military court commission, remains a great unknown in the history of aviation to this day.

Bibliography:

• Marta Anna Bielecka: Transport disasters, Dragon Publishing House, Bielsko-Biała 2014
• Patrick Smith: The pilot won't tell you, Muza Publishing House, Warsaw 2019
• Justin Whiteley: The Death of General Sikorski, Bellona Publishing House, Warsaw 2000

J.R.R. Tolkien, author of the "Lord of the Rings" trilogy

John Ronald Reuel Tolkien, known as J.R.R. Tolkien is one of the pioneers of fantasy literature. It is hard to find a man today who does not know his book "The Lord of the Rings" - or rather the whole trilogy of adventures of heroes living in Middle-earth. What other works did Tolkien write? Were there also poems in his oeuvre? How did the author's work change the literary world? Check out J.R.R. Tolkien, who popularized fantasy literature.

J.R.R. Tolkien was born on January 3, 1892, in Bloemfontein, in what is now South Africa. Tolkien's father, Arthur, worked there as a clerk in one of the banking branches. Interestingly, according to history researchers, Tolkien's name may come from the town of Tolkynen - today's Tołkina, located in Masuria, Poland. Numerous studies confirm that the great-great-grandfather of the famous writer was born in Gdańsk, so the history of the formation of Tolkien's name seems very likely.

In 1895, J.R.R. Tolkien traveled with his brother Hilary and mother Mabel to Birmingham, England. Young Tolkien's mother did not tolerate the African heat badly, and the climate was not very good for her health. Meanwhile, Tolkien's father died, suffering from internal bleeding. So Mabel was left all alone with her two children, falling into serious financial trouble. She decided to move to Sarehole Mill, located on the outskirts of the city. It was an area completely unspoiled by industry. Young Tolkien grew up joyfully and carefree here with his brother for the next four years. It was this rural oasis that inspired Tolkien to create the famous hobbit land, the Shire - an idyllic part of Middle-earth from "The Lord of the Rings"

Mabel Tolkien raised her sons in the Christian religion, which, moreover, had a strong impact on the writer's later works. Tolkien's mother taught her children not only to read and write but also to communicate in French and Latin. Young J.R.R. Tolkien was very fond of learning. He liked to draw and read. From 1900 to 1902, Mabel Tolkien systematically moved with her sons around Birmingham, looking for a suitable home for her family. Due to the regular change of place of residence, Tolkien also had to change schools frequently. J.R.R. Tolkien was especially fond of foreign languages, mainly thanks to his mother. No wonder then that in one of the schools he became interested in the history of the English language and the use of ancient English words.

When J.R.R. Tolkien turned twelve, his mother died after several weeks of a diabetic coma. This event strongly influenced the character of the future writer. J.R.R. Tolkien and his brother found themselves under the care of a priest who was friends with their mother. Then they went to one of the aunts, and later to the hostess of the guesthouse, who was friends with Mabel. It was there that Tolkien began his affair with Edith Bratt, which sparked a scandal among religious people caring for boys. Tolkien had to stop seeing his beloved until he was twenty-one. The tragic love story probably made Tolkien decide to write his famous novel "The Silmarillion". 

J.R.R. Tolkien was getting deeper and deeper into philology, as well as learning languages. He also read the outstanding works of Old English literature, which fascinated him so much that he decided to transfer every novel he read to his own world. Therefore, Tolkien began to create his own language, extracting phrases read in Old English literature and mixing them with different languages ​​(e.g. Spanish and Gothic). In time, Tolkien became so familiar with Gothic and Old English that he was able to communicate fluently in these languages. Young Tolkien discussed more and more passionate about literature, which became for him a springboard from everyday life. He and his friends even founded an association whose members met in the library and discussed the works they had read. It was during this time that J.R.R. Tolkien wrote his first poems.

In 1911, Tolkien began studying Classical Linguistics at Oxford but grew bored with Greek and Latin. Instead, he became interested in comparative linguistics and took up the Welsh language seriously. Soon after, he also became interested in learning Finnish, from which he then drew ideas to create his own, artificial language. It was the Finnish language that influenced Tolkien's creation of the Quenya language - the language of elves, which was used by the elves living in Middle-earth. On the Internet, you can find the entire history of the origin of the Quenya language, as well as a list of the most important words in Elvish speech.

In 1916, J.R.R. Tolkien finally married his beloved Edith Bratt. However, the man was drafted into the army and took part in the Battle of the Somme. Tolkien returned quickly from the front as he was infected with trench fever. After he recovered in England, he found out about the death of his friends from the literary society. Tolkien, under the influence of strong emotions, began to write a collection of works, which only after his death, were published by the son of the novelist, Christopher John Reuel (born in November 1924). All texts written by his father were collected by Christopher, completed, and published as "The Silmarillion". It took Tolkien a lifetime to write this work - while he was writing, he took breaks to create other works (such as "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings"). The author wanted to re-edit the collection of stories "The Silmarillion" before his death, but he did not have time to do so.

During the creation of "The Silmarillion", the writer began to fall ill a lot. He was first sent to a sanatorium and then to a military signaling school. When J.R.R. fell ill again and was sent to the hospital for officers. Meanwhile, Tolkien's first child, Francis, was born. In the following years, Michael, Christopher, and daughter Priscilla were born. Unfortunately, the writer was still ill and again wandered from hospital to hospital. After he managed to stabilize his health, he took a job as a junior lexicographer at Oxford. J.R.R. Tolkien moved there with his family. It was an extremely happy period in the life of the writer, who then wrote a great number of poems. The list of the most important of them is easy to find on the Internet.

It is not known when J.R.R. Tolkien began working on his famous novel "The Hobbit". This date is estimated at the beginning of the 1930s. The book grew into successive chapters, and Tolkien readily read them at literary meetings. The first edition of The Hobbit was published in 1937. The publishing house shortly thereafter asked Tolkien to continue the novel. Tolkien then decided to break through with his sketches, among others The Silmarillion. To the writer's disappointment, people preferred to read about the further adventures of the hobbits, so the publishing house rejected the writer's texts.

So the writer resumed writing a story about the adventures of the Hobbits. In 1938, J.R.R. However, Tolkien decided that the next book would not be for children, as originally intended, but for more mature fans of literature. This is how the continuation of "The Hobbit" - the "Lord of the Rings" trilogy was created, appearing in three parts in the years 1954-1955.

Tolkien moved with his wife to the city of Poole. There he continued to work on "The Silmarillion", but never managed to finish the work - as we already know, however, Tolkien's son did. Edith died in 1971, so Tolkien decided to return to Oxford and devote himself fully to philology - for which he was awarded an honorary doctorate in 1972 and then an Order of the British Empire of the second degree.

On September 2, 1973, J.R.R. Tolkien died at the age of 81 as a result of severe pneumonia. The Tolkien couple were buried in the Wolvercote Cemetery, Oxford. Interestingly, their tombstones bear not only their initials, but also the names of the heroes of Middle-earth mythology in love - Beren and Luthien - as a symbol of eternal love.

Bibliography:

• Humphrey Carpenter: Tolkien. Biography, W.A.B. Publishing House, Warsaw 2006
• Michael White: Tolkien. Biography, Rebis Publishing House, Poznań 2004

Who brings the Christmas gifts to the world? Overview of traditions in different countries

 Santa Claus as a bearded, gray-haired man, bringing gifts at Christmas, has been spread around the world relatively recently. We owe this to popular American culture. However, in many places around the world, the local tradition is still preserved today. Who brings gifts to children in different parts of the world?

According to medieval tradition, Saint Nicholas was the bishop of Mira, which is located in today's Turkey. At the turn of the 3rd and 4th centuries, when Nicholas was active, it was part of the Roman Empire. According to legend, he was a very pious man who renounced the pleasures of this world. At the same time, he was very sensitive to the needs of others. He is credited with saving the wrongly accused imperial soldiers, saving the daughters of a poor neighbor from being sold to a brothel, and even silencing a sea storm. His cult spread from Byzantium in the 11th century, where the first hagiographies were written. However, he has become a popular saint all over the world. So much so that in the Protestant calendar, despite the liquidation of the cult of saints, December 6 was kept as Nicholas Day.

During the Second Vatican Council, the Catholic Church ceased to worship certain saints whose historicity could not be proven. The memory of Nicholas on December 6 was left for the choice of local churches.

Saint Nicholas was venerated as a saint helping the faithful in need. Some legends particularly drew attention to the fact that he anonymously bestowed on those in need. On this basis, in some countries, small gifts began to be given to children on the day of his memory - December 6. This practice was quite successful, especially in the Netherlands. It was here called Mikołaj Sinter Klaas. The New York City Santa Claus, immortalized in Washington Irving's 1809 book, The History of New York, has Dutch roots. This time the saint gained a fairy-tale dimension. According to the writer, he was flying on a pegasus. It was not until the mid-nineteenth century that the idea of ​​harnessing Santa's sleigh with reindeer appeared. He also gained many features of the Scandinavian Julnis, who, according to tradition, give children Christmas gifts, and the English personification of holidays, a being called Father Christmas, widespread already in the 15th century. In the 1930s, Coca-Cola created the image of the powerful, gray-haired Santa Claus living in Lapland. This is how the image of Santa Claus, which is best known to this day, was born. Ads for a well-known drink and numerous American Christmas films popularize it around the world. Even so, in many countries, older traditions are cultivated.

In Scandinavia, gifts for children are brought by tomte (Sweden) or nisse (Norway). These figures from Nordic folklore should be treated more like our dwarfs than like the powerfully built Santa Claus from American movies. The competition for Nicholas here is Saint Lucy, whose day - December 13, is celebrated very solemnly in Sweden. She also has gifts for the children.

In England and parts of France, gifts were brought by the holiday spirit - Father Christmas (Pere Noel). This character was shaped in Victorian England. Although it has been known at least since the 15th century, it was not until the 19th century that it began to be said that it brings gifts to children. The old version of the Spirit of Christmas can be found in Charles Dickens' novel A Christmas Carol, the new one in The Lion, the Witch, and the Old Wardrobe by C.S. Lewis.

The Danish equivalent of Saint Nicholas is Julemand. However, this character spread only after World War II. Previously, Nisse brought gifts, as in Norway.

In Niemcza, the Czech Republic, and Silesia, the Baby Jesus himself can also bring gifts.

In southern Europe, a tradition is maintained in which gifts are brought only by the Three Kings, or rather the Magi-Kings (Reyes Magos). Children have to wait for them until January 6.

Italian kids also get gifts on January 6 but are brought by a fairy named Befana. Legend has it that she was late to meet the baby Jesus and that is why she now leaves gifts to all the children. Befana has all the features of a classic witch - she is an old lady with a curved nose and flies on a broomstick. Her name is probably derived from the twisted Greek word "epiphany" (revelation). It is possible that the custom of depicting a female figure giving out gifts for Christmas dates back to the traditions of ancient Rome. Some people connect her with the Roman goddess of the new year - Strenua. In some German Länder, the equivalent of Befana is Frau Berta, probably also adopted from the Roman tradition.

Latin American countries adopted Christmas customs along with the colonial culture and Catholic faith from the Old Continent. Mostly from Spain and Portugal. Saint Nicholas (also known as Viejito Pascuero or Papa Noel), the Baby Jesus, or the Magi-Kings bring gifts here.

Orthodoxy greatly honors Bishop Nicholas as a saint. Contrary to Catholic countries, its historicity has not been questioned here. However, he is not a typical gift-giving saint. In Russia, a popular character distributing gifts is Grandfather Frost. In Poland, it is associated with the culture of the USSR, but the custom of giving gifts by this equivalent of Saint Nicholas spread as early as the 19th century. Earlier, Grandfather Frost was called a rather dark figure, referring to Slavic deities. He was the personification of frost that kills living things in its path. However, in the 19th century, his image was slightly "warmed", following the example of the Dutch Sinter Klaas. He was also given a Snow White to help him - considered to be his daughter or granddaughter.

Many countries of the former Soviet Union and the former Russian Empire took over Grandfather Frost as the one who brings gifts. Its version can be found in places as far apart as Azerbaijan and North Macedonia.

In the tradition of the Greek Orthodox Church, Saint Basil brings gifts to children. He does it not on Christmas Eve or Christmas morning, but on the first day of the New Year.

In Poland, Saint Nicholas is the most popular. In some of the more traditional houses, the emphasis is that the prototype was a bishop. Many children, however, believe in Santa, popularized by American films.

Nevertheless, some older traditions have also survived. It is possible to give gifts to the Child Jesus, the Santa Claus - a figure derived from the tradition of carollers, walking around the villages in disguise. In parts of Poland and the Czech Republic, an Angel can also be Mikołaj's assistant.

As you can see, the tradition of bringing gifts during the holiday season is very diverse. American culture infiltrates us through films, commercials, and Christmas promotions in supermarkets. Despite this, many countries value the local tradition and try to maintain it.

Amy Winehouse - the secret of the death of the famous singer - suicide or an accident?

 Amy Winehouse was a British singer who stood out for her amazing, expressive, and deep vocals. She has won five Grammy Awards and many other awards, overshadowing artists of her generation. Amy has done a great job in the music scene. Unfortunately, she did not cope with drug addiction. What were the causes of the singer's death? Did Amy kill herself? Or was it an unfortunate accident? Find out why Amy Winehouse's death was one of the most tragic and mysterious in history.

Amy Winehouse has struggled with mental health problems for many years. When she was only 9 years old, her parents divorced. The psyche of young Amy did not go unnoticed. As her music career developed, Amy became more and more recognizable. When the singer's career finally took off for good and it became loud about her, Amy began looking for solace in alcohol and drugs. Fame, numerous awards, and prizes - all this was beyond Winehouse's strength. Vodka and cocaine have become the inseparable life companions of the young singer. The talented artist began to lose weight and get into more and more health problems. The media waited for Winehouse's every mistake, publicized her greatest weaknesses, and invented new scandals with her participation. Dazed by alcohol, Amy was booed by Serbian audiences in Belgrade (June 2011). It was her first and last live performance in Europe. The entire European tour was then canceled.

Island Records, where Amy worked, was not helping her either. There was pressure to keep Amy working all the time. The singer did not rest and was recording new material non-stop. She went on tours, although she lacked the strength to do so. She went on a tour of Europe after treatment in a drug addiction clinic, which she stopped after only a few days. She didn't feel strong enough to be on stage again. Did no one notice that Amy was in a desperate state? Has no one seen that the singer needs treatment? Perhaps. But the most important thing in the music industry is the earnings of the stars - especially when you're a popular artist like Amy Winehouse. The singer was successful and earned huge money. For the label, that was all that mattered.

Without a shadow of a doubt, Amy Winehouse was one of the most talented female singers of all time. She had an amazing timbre voice that was deep and gentle at the same time. Fans loved her and Winehouse's popularity continued. The music industry was pushing, journalists kept attacking it. Amy couldn't handle everything alone. She died on July 23, 2011, at the age of only 27. Club 27, which mass culture describes as the fate of the death of influential 27-year-old music stars, imprisoned the singer forever in its snares.

Amy Winehouse died at her home in Camden (North London). The last time a security guard saw her alive, leaving the star's apartment at 2 in the morning. When he came to wake her up around 10:00, and the singer did not want to get up, the security guard was not surprised - it happened to the singer very often. At about 3 p.m. he came again, but Amy Winehouse still didn't wake up. When he noticed that he was not breathing, he immediately called for help. Doctors confirmed the artist's death. Empty vodka bottles were secured there - two larger and one smaller. At the time of Amy's death, Winehouse had 4.16% alcohol in her blood. The singer did not have time to write her will, so all Amy's property was inherited by her parents.

A coroner's report (Suzanne Greenway) and an autopsy conducted revealed that Amy Winehouse died from alcohol intoxication shock after a period of abstinence. Greenaway confirmed that the singer's death was an unfortunate accident, although suicide cannot be ruled out either. Winehouse drank the lethal dose of alcohol voluntarily - aware of the risks it posed.

What were Amy Winehouse's last moments like? There was no sign of an impending tragedy. The singer did not drink alcohol for a long time and did not use drugs. The final day was accompanied by Amy the bodyguard, Andrew Morris. They were sitting in Winehouse's house, where the singer watched her archival videos on YouTube. She sang and danced and seemed to be having a good time. Morris didn't suspect that he was talking to Amy for the last time. You already know the rest of the story.

Conspiracy theories over the death of Amy Winehouse

Why did Winehouse decide to reach for alcohol again? Did the demons of the past come back to her when she listened to her videos on YouTube? The artist drank herself to death, struggling with depression and negative media comments for many years. Similar problems had, among others, Whitney Houston, who drowned in a bathtub under the influence of drugs. Over the years, new conspiracy theories have been developed around the death of female artists. What are the secrets of Amy Winehouse's death? Is it true that a lot of things still have not been clarified? It is worth looking at the circumstances of the singer's death.

Early this morning, Amy Winehouse's neighbor testified that he had heard the stars screaming and crying loudly from the apartment. A neighbor has sworn that Amy did not die in her sleep.

Fans blame Winehouse's ex-husband, Blake Civil. It is said that from the beginning of her relationship with Civil Amy was often seen under the influence of alcohol or intoxication with drugs. Civil, after the death of the star, openly admitted that it was he who made Amy addicted to hard drugs. However, the autopsy results did not show their presence in the singer's body.

Amy's brother (Axel) claimed that the singer was killed by bulimia. He didn't believe the autopsy. Amy has been struggling with bulimia for many years, which has weakened the singer's body. He was susceptible to the slightest changes. Axel argued that if it weren't for the eating disorder, Amy would have been able to cope with the dose of alcohol she took on her last day of life.

The day before her death, the singer was visited by a psychologist. Amy had complained that she was feeling unwell. Dr. Christina Romete has confirmed that at their last meeting, there were no indications that Amy was depressed. The singer reportedly swore that she did not want to die.

We'll probably never know why Amy Winehouse chose to end her life this way. Was she drinking herself to death on purpose? Or was it really an unfortunate accident? Whatever the truth may be, Amy Winehouse has joined Club 27, taking with her all the secrets of her death.

Bibliography:

• Mitch Winehouse: Amy. My daughter, Sine Qua Non-Publishing House, Warsaw 2012
• Daphne Barak: Saving Amy. History without a happy end, G + J Publishing House, Warsaw 2011

How to Wake Up Quickly - Here are 5 quick ways to wake up in the morning

 Most people do not like getting up in the morning because when they wake up they still feel sleepy, sluggish, and without energy. Instead of welcoming the coming day when so many interesting things can happen, we wander the house without energy, risking being late for work. The good news is that we have effective ways to wake you up that will help you gain energy quickly. Coffee is controversial, and we are not really sure if it is healthy.

Not everyone can get up in the morning like a lark, tight and ready to work. Many people feel heavy in the morning and it takes a while before they fully wake up. Even the morning larks have a hard night at times and in the morning they wake up sleepless and without energy. Unfortunately, work or school is waiting. We have to pull ourselves together and organize ourselves.

Morning drowsiness can last from 30 minutes to 4 hours. We have a big problem if we are still without energy after reaching work and it takes a long time to be fully operational. Therefore, it is important to know the ways to wake up. It is also good to develop rituals that we always do in the morning to gain energy faster.

What stimulates after getting up in the morning:

• fresh air,
• cold shower,
• gymnastics,
• stretching,
• coffee or other stimulating drinks.

If you sleep with the window closed, open the window as soon as you get out of bed and let in the fresh air, even when it's cold outside. Not only fresh air is stimulating, but also sunlight, so open the curtains as soon as you get up.

At night, a person exhales carbon dioxide, therefore in the morning, there may be less oxygen in the bedroom. By opening the window, more oxygen flows into the room and we oxygenate faster. In winter, it is worth opening the window even for a few moments. If you are afraid of catching a cold, you can move to another room during this time.

The shower has a stimulating effect on the body. In the morning, the shower should not be hot, as the high temperature makes you lazy. The shower should be kept short and the water not too warm. After a shower, quickly massage the entire body into this quick-absorbing balm.

The perfect way to wake up in the morning is a cold shower. A cold shower not only gives energy, awakens mentally and physically, but also promotes health: it increases the body's immunity, delays skin aging, and improves the state of mind. Coldwater increases the metabolic rate, which in turn reduces fatigue.

Unfortunately, a cold shower is unpleasant if we are not used to it. However, you can get used to it. An alternating hot and cold shower is also beneficial for health and morning awakening. It is much easier to get used to such a shower, especially since the cold stream is very short.

Dehydration increases fatigue, has a negative effect on mental concentration, and reduces alertness. At night, we breathe, sweat, and get rid of water from the body. If we do not drink enough water during the day, we can be dehydrated in the morning. Therefore, in the morning it is best to drink a glass of water before breakfast. People who don't like water alone can add a few drops of lemon juice. Warm water with lemon will additionally cleanse the intestines.

In order to have more energy during the day and in the morning after waking up, it is worthwhile to regularly hydrate the body and drink water, even if we do not feel thirsty. It is better to drink regularly throughout the day in smaller amounts than to drink larger amounts of water at once. As a result, the body is more hydrated. If we drink more water at once, we'll have to go to the bathroom quickly.

Most often, the first thing we do in the morning is drink coffee, which stimulates and allows us to act faster. Opinions are divided as to whether coffee is healthy or not. However, more and more people are trying to limit coffee drinking and give up traditional morning coffee. Coffee is a diuretic, so it dehydrates the body during the night, which can promote morning fatigue and sleepiness. So do we have better ways to wake up?

The best ways to wake up without your morning coffee are:

• water with lemon or ginger provides the body with antioxidants, electrolytes, as well as vitamins, and microelements. If we cannot drink a non-sweet drink, it is worth adding bee honey, which is a source of easily digestible carbohydrates.
• green tea is a good source of antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals. In addition, it contains theine, which has a stimulating effect.
• yerba mate, which also contains antioxidants, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus and calcium, and caffeine, which is released gradually.

There are many ways to wake up without coffee and it's worth using them, and coffee should be drunk in moderation.

From Stonehenge to Kuyavian tombs - extraordinary megaliths of Europe and their creators

 Megalithic structures are the oldest surviving architectural structures in the world. Most European monuments of this type are dated between around 4000 and 2000 BC. There are also younger ones, from the Iron Age, and the oldest, which were made thousands of years earlier. Who and how could have built these monumental structures? What was their function?

Megalith is a general name that refers to all prehistoric and early-historic structures made of huge stones (megalith - Greek big stone). The common feature of these buildings is the raw material - rough or poorly processed stone blocks of large size and weight, not joined with mortar. Among these structures, however, we can distinguish buildings with multiple purposes and shapes. Here are the most frequently distinguished types of megaliths:

• Stone circles (kromlech) - are the most famous because of the popularity of Stonehenge in Great Britain. Kromlech is a Celtic name meaning curved stone. It refers to circles built of vertically arranged oblong boulders. Sometimes - as in the case of the famous Salisbury Plain circle - some of the stones may be additionally covered with equally impressive horizontal slabs.
• Dolmens - Small structures (usual tombs) on a rectangular plan. Made of several vertical stones covered with a large flat stone block.
• Menhirs - Huge blocks of stone, set upright and buried in the ground. Often the upper part has a conical end. They can stand separately or form a larger complex, e.g. arranged in rows.
• Tombs (burial mounds) - regardless of the funerary function of the v. structures there are different types of megalithic tombs in which the stone structure is covered with earth and sometimes supported by wooden elements. Due to their hill-like shape, they are called barrows (an old Turkish term for a fortress or fortification) or pyramids. The corridors consist of a corridor leading to the main chamber. Gallery corridors are very long underground corridors without an additional chamber. The box tombs are small tombs made of thin stones and covered with a mound. Stone-and-earth ones are built of compacted earth and stones and are reinforced with wooden scaffolding. Examples of the latter include Kuyavian tombs.

In addition, structures and structures made of large stones are often part of larger complexes, including places of worship or burial. At least some of the complexes could also function as prehistoric astronomical observatories, calendars, and temples. One function did not exclude others.

The largest number of megalithic structures in Europe are found in the British Isles, but can be found everywhere - from Ireland to Greece. Interestingly, many of them can also be seen in Poland. Here are some of the most famous European megalithic structures and complexes:

• Stonehenge - the most famous megalithic structure in Europe. It was formed in phases, probably between around 3100 and 2000 BC. It consists of an outer shaft, a larger circle formed by the so-called blue stones (bluestones), horseshoes made of larger troilite stones lead to the interior (two boulders covered with a third stone upright). The inner horseshoe is made of monumental tributes, about 9 meters high. An alley leads to the circle, originally also limited by a rampart.
• Carnac Megaliths - Found in Brittany (northwestern France) and even older than Stonehenge. Several thousand (according to archaeologists it could have been as many as 10 thousand originally) menhirs were arranged in rows here. Some of them weigh several tons. In addition to the rows of large stones, you can also come across dolmens and lonely obelisks. (Żemła-Siesicka A., 2019: p. 157)
• Dolmens of Antequera - one of the largest and oldest megalithic tombs in Europe. They can be seen in Andalucia, in the south of Spain. The two older ones - Menga and Viera arose probably between 3500 and 3000 BCE, the younger El Romeral dates back to about 2500 BCE. Menga is believed to be the largest known megalithic burial. The Menga Dolmen is classified as a gallery megalith because it has no internal structure. It is 16 meters long and 6 meters wide at its widest point. (Lozano Rodriguez J.A. et al., 2014: pp. 762-763)

Megalithic temples of Malta - Dated around 3600-2500 BC are some of the most remarkable monuments of megalithic architecture. The most famous building is the temple in Tarxien, on the outskirts of Valetta. It is not a tomb. It consists of pairs of semicircular chambers, which are connected with other corridors. The chambers are arranged from the largest (at the entrance) to the smallest. Inside, some walls are decorated with floral motifs. (cf. Ingpen R. A., 2000: p. 15)

• Kuyavian tombs - are an important monument of megalithic architecture in Poland. Their creation is estimated at 3700-2500 BCE. Their largest clusters are located near the settlements of Wietrzychowice and Sarnowo, near Izbica Kujawska. The tombs are in the shape of isosceles trapezoids, from the front base 8-10 m wide to the end of about 2 m. The arms can extend up to 150 m. In front of the tomb, the walls were made of the largest boulders, descending towards the end base. From the outside, the tombs are covered with an earthen and stone sheathing. (Żemła-Siesicka M.: p. 158) 

There are several larger clusters of megalithic structures or individual megaliths in Europe. Large clusters are found in northern France and the British Isles. However, in fact, most European countries can boast of some megalithic monuments. In Ukraine, the so-called The Stone Tomb (Ukr. Kamyan Mohyla) is a remnant of the early Neolithic culture, although boulders were placed here at least until the Middle Ages. Other places of large concentrations of megaliths can be found in France: dolmens and menhirs from 5000 years ago are found in large numbers in Languedoc, apart from this important point on the map are the previously mentioned megaliths from Brittany. Megaliths in the British Isles are well researched and very varied. The highest density of this type of building is in Ireland. Megaliths in Portugal and southern Spain (including the aforementioned dolmens from Andalusia) are distributed not so densely but over an impressively large area. Going further southeast, we find large clusters in Corsica, smaller ones in Sicily, and the megalithic temples in Malta described above. Megalithic structures not fully explored are also found on the Greek islands of the Aegean Sea. They are probably slightly later than their counterparts in France and Spain, and to this day they are a mystery to architects and archaeologists. These include, inter alia, the so-called dragon houses that can be found on Evia Island. In Greece, the megalithic style also includes, for example, cyclopean walls from the Mycenaean period. In the past, it was believed that the builders of monumental walls made of huge boulders were giant cyclops, hence the name.

As I mentioned earlier, the remains of megalithic structures are also found in Poland. First of all, they are tombs in the form of barrows. We also have our own stone circles in Pomerania. These, however, are later - they come from the Iron Age. Their creators were probably the Goths.

We cannot ignore the fact that megaliths are not confined to Europe. They can be found all over the world. Some of the oldest and most impressive are in the Middle East. We can't piece the history of these amazing structures together without taking them into account.

It is commonly assumed that the first builders of these structures were representatives of the early Stone Age (Neolithic) cultures. The transition from nomadic to sedentary life after the introduction of agriculture allowed people to collaborate in the planning and construction of huge buildings. Long-term use and consistent expansion of some megalithic complexes prove that a given culture has remained in one place for thousands of years.

The second important factor that could have influenced the flourishing of megalithic architecture was social divisions. Diversification of performed functions, i.e. priest, priestess, warriors, leaders, etc., prompted people to create temples and impressive tombs. There was someone to create for (eg princes), there was someone to plan for (some elites could explore the geometry and position of heavenly bodies), and there was also someone to do physical work (the appearance of "peasants" and slaves).

Most of the buildings from this period are clearly planned to fulfill a certain astronomical function. Part of this could be related to beliefs regarding, for example, the wandering of souls. However, stone circles or dolmens could also be a kind of calendar regulating agricultural work during the year.

When we look at powerful megalithic structures, we wonder how they did it. Huge blocks of stone are not only arranged as intended but often transported kilometers from where they were obtained. In addition, most of the megaliths are thoughtfully positioned relative to the sky and astronomical phenomena. For example, dolmens in the Iberian Peninsula are most often oriented eastwards and positioned so that the sun falls into them perpendicularly on the summer solstice or the autumn and vernal equinoxes. (cf. Lozano Rodriguez J. A. et al .: p. 768) The asymmetric structure of these structures is the best proof that their builders knew exactly what they were doing. They did not care for simple symmetry, but for the function they were to perform. Equally precise is the alignment of the tools (dome tomb) in New Grange (Ireland). Dating from around 3000 B.C. tolos is oriented in such a way that during the winter solstice (December 21) the rays reach their farthest recesses. Researchers speculate that this had something to do with prehistoric beliefs about the association of souls with heaven or the sun. (Hoskin M., 2007: p. 15)

The tombs and Temples of the first farmers, which seem primitive at first glance, hide the secrets of long-forgotten knowledge. When we realize what skills and work our distant ancestors had to put into their construction, perhaps we will look at the earliest history of Europe differently. The richness and diversity of these structures are surprising to this day.

Bibliography:

• Anna Żemła-Siesicka, Megalithic landscapes. An attempt to define the notion and location in landscape typologies, in work 42 (2) 2019, 147-174
• Jose Antonio Lozano Rodriguez et al., Prehistoric engineering and astronomy of the great Menga Dolmen (Málaga, Spain). A geometric and geoarchaeological analysis, in Journal of Archaeological Science, January 2014, pp. 759-771
• Robert A. Ingpen, Encyclopedia of mysterious places: the life and legends of ancient sites around the world, New York 2000
• History of Astronomy, ed. Michael Hoskin, WUW 2007

7 wonders of the world - dates, places, builders, causes of destruction

Surely each of you has heard about the seven wonders of the world. These are famous buildings that have fascinated people since antiquity. Today, the idea of the 7 Wonders of the World is also alive. Unfortunately, almost all the classic wonders of antiquity have been destroyed by natural disasters. There were many new lists with famous monuments, but perhaps the most famous is the list from 2007. Below I will tell you about the classic and modern wonders of the world.

Where did the idea to call a building the "wonder of the world" come from? The first known list comes from the 3rd century BC, its author is the Greek writer and engineer Philo of Byzantium. Few people today remember that tourism was no stranger to the Greeks, and in the ancient world, they definitely had something to visit. It should not be surprising, however, that among the seven miracles there are as many as four Greek buildings (and one from the Greek-Persian border). Initially, the term "theamata", meaning "things worth seeing" was used for them. Later the word "thaumata" or "miracle" was adopted. (Seven wonders of the world, www.britannica.com)

The choice of seven, not five or ten, is probably due to the fact that the number was of importance in Greek culture. Seven was a magic number for the ancient world, referring to the lunar calendar. It is also worth remembering that the world of ancient Greece, Egypt, and Persia was swarming with famous and stunning buildings. Thus, the selection of specific seven places worth seeing gave them a special rank.

The Classic 7 Wonders of the Ancient World include:

• The Pyramid of Cheops (or the Great Pyramids of Giza in general), the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, the Royal Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes, the Hanging Gardens of Semiramis, the Lighthouse of Alexandria, the statue of Zeus on Olympus.
• Of these, only the pyramids have survived to this day. Fortunately, thanks to the ancient Greeks' passion for tourism and modern archaeological research, we can say something about every architectural marvel of that era. Here are places and buildings that fascinated more than 2,000 years ago:
• Cheops Pyramid - it was built on the orders of Pharaoh in the XXVIII century BC She is accompanied by two other pyramids, Khafre, and Mykerinos. History has turned out to be kinder to these monuments compared to the rest of the wonders of the ancient world. We still don't know how it was built. The description given by Herodotus is a repetition of what he heard from Egyptian priests. However, it does not fully confirm what we know today based on archaeological research. Probably up to 8,000 people worked on the construction of the pyramid. workers. Rather, they were not slaves, as tradition would have it. (Gööck R., 1996: pp. 8-9)
• Temple of Artemis in Ephesus - The size and splendor of this temple exceeded the Parthenon in Athens. According to Pliny, the area of ​​the building was 73-14 m, and it was surrounded by 127 columns. This description has been confirmed by archaeological work. In ancient times, it was considered the most beautiful and most important place of worship on earth (at least by the Greeks). Construction began in the 6th-century BCE. on the site of a more modest temple. The works lasted 120 years. This masterpiece of architecture burned down in 356 BC but was rebuilt. The final collapse of the temple came with the Goth's invasion in 136 CE. (Gööck R .: pp. 10-11, Kwiatkowski T., 2016)
• Mausoleum in Halicarnassus - King Mausolos, reigning around 360 BCE in the Persian province of Karien, wanted to build himself a wonderful tomb. The building designers competition was won by two Greeks, Satyros and Pytheos. Direct records of their work have been lost, but the supposed appearance of the mausoleum has been reconstructed on the basis of other sources. The proper mortuary temple, surrounded by arcades, rose on the cubic block. The whole was crowned with a conical roof with a quadriga at the top. The mausoleum was destroyed during subsequent cataclysms. In the 13th century, the Joannites used the remains of the building as material for the construction of defensive walls. (Gööck R: pp. 12-13)
• Colossus of Rhodes - a statue of Helios, founded by the inhabitants of Rhodes after the victory over the then Macedonian king in the 4th century BCE The money was obtained from siege equipment left by Macedonians. It is not known exactly how high it was, supposedly between 30 and 40 meters. He was made of bronze, he leaned with his legs on two plinths rising straight from the water, he held a torch in his hand. The work was destroyed in an earthquake in 241 BCE. The remains were sold and melted down in the 7th-century CE. (Gööck R .: pp. 13-14)
• Faros lighthouse in Alexandria - it is believed that it was the most magnificent building that antiquity created. Built between 300 and 280 BC by Sostratos of Knidos was truly remarkable. It had huge blocks of glass at its base. With its slender shape, tapering towards the top, and surrounded by statues, it must have resembled Indian temples from later centuries. It is possible that it was even 120 m high, and its light was visible even from a distance of 50 km. How much truth is there in that? Hard to say. We know all the information from the broadcasts. The lighthouse was damaged by earthquakes in 956, 1303, and 1323. Today, a fort built in the 15th century stands in its place. (Kwiatkowski T., 2016)
• Statue of Zeus at Olympia - Anyone who has touched the history of antiquity knows that Phidias was one of the greatest Greek sculptors. It was he who was the author of the 15-meter statue of Zeus, which sat in the temple in Olympia. It was carved around 430 BCE. At the end of the 4th century CE, the statue was transported to Constantinople, where it was destroyed in a fire in 462 (Kwiatkowski T., 2016)
• Gardens of Babylon - among the wonders of antiquity, this one is the most controversial. Thanks to the archaeological excavations, we know that they existed. The commissioner of their construction was probably King Nebuchadnezzar (604-562 BCE), who built them for his wife. However, she was not the legendary Semiramis. Besides, there could have been more terraced gardens in Babylon's history. At the time of the creation of the ancient list of the 7 wonders of the world, they were only a legend. (Gööck R .: pp. 20-21)

After nearly all the wonders of the world had been destroyed, seven new structures were sought to replace them. Several lists were made. For the purposes of this article, I will talk about the so-called new seven wonders of the world, which were selected in an online vote among approx. 90 million. Participants. The initiator of the vote was Bernard Weber. The results were announced in 2007.

Due to the globalization and international nature of the competition, the world wonder map has expanded significantly. The places on the list come from almost all continents.

Before I tell you what objects and places are on the new list, it is worth mentioning other lists. Not all of them were limited to buildings. In the last hundred years, there has also been talking of natural wonders. For example, Armchair Explorer writer and podcaster Aaron Millar selects a new set of wonders each year. This is not a bad strategy, considering that there are many famous places. How many possibilities does the list that can be refreshed every year offer? Theoretically, infinitely many. The 2021 set includes Geoglyphs from Nazca, Great Hadron Collider in Switzerland, and a Neolithic stone circle from Callanish in Scotland. The downside is that the author did not indicate whether it is a wonder of nature or culture, and in the same list we can find rocky arches of the national park in Utah or even migration routes of wild animals in Kenya and Tanzania. (see Aaron Miller, & Seven Wonders of the World for 2021, https://www.cntraveller.com/gallery/seven-wonders-of-the-world, accessed on 15/01/2021)

The idea of ​​the new seven wonders of the world, initiated by Bernard Weber, is more traditional. The author limited himself to choosing from among the monuments whose beauty we should appreciate and protect. That is why he combined the campaign and voting with an ecological message.

7 wonders of the world in the 21st century

Here are the results of the online voting, the results of which the world got to know in 2007

1. Great Wall of China - in the history of Chinese architecture, brick fortifications were not used for a long time, but ramparts were built in antiquity. This is how the Great Wall of China was created. The construction of the border fortifications was started by Emperor Shi-Huang Ti in the 3rd century BC, but most of this structure was built in the 15th century. Many workers died while laying the next layers of the embankment. Today the wall is 2,450 km long, most of it is 8 m wide at the base and 16 m high. It is the only wonder of the world visible from space. (Gööck R: pp. 71-73)
2. Petra - You surely know the photos of the famous city of Nabataeans carved in the rock, especially the so-called Treasury of the Pharaohs. Located in today's Jordan, the complex, hidden among rocks and sand, was built in the 4th century BCE, and its fall falls on the 4th century CE. It is one of the most visually amazing places that has ignited the imagination of many travelers and adventurers. Contrary to many abandoned ancient objects, it was not damaged by natural disasters. (Harpur J., Westwood J., 1997: pp. 114-119)
3. Colosseum - the most impressive and best-known remnant of the Eternal City from its heyday. Built under Emperor Vespasian and his son Titus. The Colosseum has four stories, each of which is built in a different architectural order. The huge building, 50 m high and 527 m in circumference, in its heyday housed 45 thousand. people. The Colosseum is also a symbol of imperial Rome's cruelty. 5,000 animals and many thousands of gladiators died during the 100 days of the inauguration of the facility. In later times, also cruel and perverse executions of Christians took place here. (Little Encyclopedia of Ancient Culture, 1990: p. 542)
4. Chichén Itzá - The ruins of the ancient Mayan city in the Yucatan Peninsula. Probably built in the 6th century AD. Probably attacked in the 10th century by Itza, a Mayan people speaking a different dialect. They are the source of the city's name. The ruins extend over an area of ​​10 square kilometers and in its heyday, up to 35 thousand people could live here. people. The landmarks include terraced pyramids and the largest ancient soccer field. (Chichén Itzá, www.britannica.com)
5. Machu Picchu - The Inca city ruins lie between the Huayna Picchu and Machu Picchu mountains. The city was built probably in the 15th century as a fortress inhabited by about 1000 inhabitants. All indications are that it was abandoned before the fall of the Inca empire. It was rediscovered by the American historian and archaeologist Hiram Bingham in 1911. (Harpur J., Westwood J .: pp. 130-133)
6. Taj Mahal - A monument built in the 17th century, it is today one of the main trademarks of Indian tourism. Ironically, this most recognizable Indian structure was built during the Mughal Muslim dynasty. The Taj Mahal is the tomb of Shah Jahan's beloved wife, Muntaz Mahal. (Kwiatkowski T., 2016)
7. Statue of Christ the Redeemer - The 30-meter-tall statue of Christ towers over the skyline of Rio de Janeiro. It was completed in 1931. Since then, it has been the most recognizable object associated with Brazil. It is also the largest Art-Deco sculpture. The work has several authors: the engineer Haitor da Silva Costa, the artist Carlos Oswald and the sculptor Paul Landowski. (Murray L., Christ the Redeemer, www.britannica.com,)

A place on the list was also awarded ex aequo to the Cheops pyramid. That is why in some of the present comparisons you will see not seven, but eight wonders of the world.

It is worth saying a few more words not only about the official wonders of the world but also about where they were or are. Looking at the map of objects, we can trace how the European world has expanded.

The classic list, as I have already mentioned, concerns mainly buildings from the Greek world. The new wonders of the world come from all continents and have very different cultural backgrounds. On each internet map, we will see the density of old buildings in the Mediterranean basin. The new list includes as many as three sites from South and Central America and only one from Europe.

The 7 Wonders of the World is the oldest list of tourist sites in the world. Although it is over 2,000 years old, it still amazes and inspires. Wonders of the world are mentioned in modern travel guides, they also appear in computer games, literature, and movies. That is why it is sometimes worth taking a closer look at them.

Bibliography:

• Encyclopedia Britannica, online version (www.britannica.com, articles listed in footnotes, accessed 01/16/2021)
• Roland Gööck, Wonders of the world, Muza SA 1996
• James Harpur, Jennifer Westwood, Legendary Places, Penta 1997
• Ted Kwiatkowski, Old civilizations, famous buildings, APR 2016
• Little Encyclopedia of Ancient Culture, collective work, PWN 1990
• Aaron Miller, Seven Wonders of the World for 2021 (https://www.cntraveller.com/gallery/seven-wonders-of-the-world, accessed on 15/01/2021)

The cult of the goddess Ishtar

 Probably all of us have heard of Babylon. We know only that it was an ancient Mesopotamian city and the former capital of Babylonia. Certainly, not everyone knows what was happening outside the city gates. Babylon is today an archaeological site in Iraq. In the past, however, it was referred to as the ancient capital of… venereal diseases. The goddess Ishtar contributed to everything, whose cult made Babylon the most dissolute city in the history of the world. What was happening in Babylon, and how was the cult of the goddess Ishtar worshiped? Let's try to unravel this mystery.

In the past, religious rituals were completely different than today. Prayer was not given so much attention in Babylon - sexual intercourse was preferred instead. Supernatural forces were not explained by science but were presented in the form of copulation. Before we get into the spicy details of Babylonian customs, however, it's worth knowing that the goddess Ishtar - also known as Inana or the Lady of Heaven - was the culprit in all this sexual confusion. Ishtar is famous for being the deity of carnal love. Some scientists insist that it should not be so, because Ishtar had a husband Dumuzi - the god of vegetation, crops, and nature. However, their relationship and life together are not exactly described in any book. Perhaps except that Ishtar contributed to Dumuzi's death.

In Babylon, Ishtar was described as the goddess of all love - that is, not only conjugal love. Ishtar was associated with extramarital sex, but also with prostitution, which later became a form of worshiping her cult. Exactly the sixth tablet of the Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh (the semi-legendary Sumerian king of the city of Unug) indicated that Ishtar was mistreating all her lovers. So one had to be careful not to anger the goddess of love capable of brutal actions - like sending his spouse Dumuzi to the land of death for all eternity. Only because Dumuzi did not miss her after returning from his journey to the world of the dead.

Babylon was formerly the capital of Babylon, lying between the Tigris and Euphrates. For some people, the city is associated with a place of culture and a powerful empire that was famous for its enormous wealth. However, Babylon is most remembered as the land of debauchery, of course, because of the goddess Ishtar. It was she who spoiled Babylon's reputation, and in fact, a fairly specific cult of Ishtar. It was not, of course, that the cult of love or fertility did not exist before. This is undoubtedly one of the oldest beliefs related to religion, for example, mammoth hunters used to create images of shapely women - this is how they adored nature. In ancient times, the Mother Goddess was worshiped as bride, mother, and virgin.

The customs of ancient Babylon were perfectly described by the Greek historian Herodotus, also known as the Father of History. He portrayed the cult of Ishtar in a very blunt way, writing that every woman had to sit at the temple of Ishtar at least once in her life and surrender herself to a foreigner. So many women came to the temple and they lined up - accompanied by the servants. As some left the temples, other women immediately replaced them. It was forbidden to go home from the temple until some stranger had reunited the woman with her body. Herodotus also emphasized that women did not always leave temples quickly. The prettier ones were reportedly returning home quickly, having intercourse with an unknown man, and receiving the goddess's blessing. More than once, the less beautiful ones had to wait several years before they could connect with anyone. Some people dispute Herodotus' words, but no one has ever completely refuted them. Especially since the figure of Ishtar additionally makes Herodotus' observations credible.

The Babylonian customs seemed downright repulsive to those outside Babylon's walls. The Jews referred to the women who went to the temple of Ishtar, for example, "Babylonian harlots." Later this term became a famous term for a symbolic figure in the book of Revelation - functioning as the embodiment of evil and the Antichrist.

The Babylonians really believed that Ishtar was the embodiment of love. That is why they were eager to have sexual relations with people they met. Sex was supposed to ensure both youth and vitality for the couple practicing it. The goddess Ishtar appeared in various forms. As the Epic of Gilgamesh proclaimed, on the new year, Ishtar appeared in the form of mortals and celebrated in the embrace of the gods. That is why Ishtar was imitated by specially trained priestesses and temple maids. The whole ancient world must have heard of them. In addition to the women who came to the temple of Ishtar, gentlemen were also happy to visit. This is where the goddess Ishtar's deputies were "served". The holy prostitutes, as priestesses were called in ancient times, spread the cult of the goddess Ishtar beyond the threshold of the temple. Almost all of them wanted to serve their beloved goddess with dedication, so they also performed a sacred duty outside the temple walls. In this way, she paid tribute to Ishtar, and also ensured herself prosperity and lasting beauty.

It is also interesting that the members of Ishtar were also women who already had husbands. Only when they had sexual intercourse with a stranger could they return to their beloved - enlightened and full of vitality. Other sources also indicate that young girls were sent to the temple of Ishtar before they got married. By devoting themselves to a stranger, they allegedly obtained consent from Ishtar herself so that they could get married. Sexual rapture was therefore to serve not only health but also the sanctification of the wedding. However, the temple games did not go unnoticed, which we will discuss in more detail in a moment.

All because the cult of the goddess Ishtar got beyond Babylon and went north - to Cyprus. It was there that the Greek settlers renamed Ishtar Aphrodite, the goddess who was born out of the seafoam. Interestingly, there are myths in Cyprus that the place where Aphrodite was born was full of blood and ... sperm. It is said that the titan Kronos had drowned his father's severed member earlier in this place. Aphrodite, like Ishtar, was not innocent - she loved a life of bliss. Even in the city of Uruk (an ancient city in southern Mesopotamia), orgies were held in her honor in the past. It can therefore be said that Ishtar started the Cypriot legend of Aphrodite.

But let's go back to Babylon, where the holy prostitutes were treated as exceptional women. When they managed to have intercourse with a strange man, they had no problem finding a husband. And it would all have ended in a beautiful happy end was it not for the fact that casual sex resulted in frequent sexually transmitted diseases. Sexual freedom and the lack of protection meant that people contracted dangerous venereal diseases.

In Babylon, it was believed that sexually transmitted diseases did not come for nothing. It was said that this was a punishment from the goddess Ishtar for those who do not live by divine laws. Ishtar sent such wicked people great pain and the worst diseases, which were said to be the personification of a demon. No doctor could cure these diseases. King Hammurabi himself punished people in a similar way, as he cursed the non-listening society in this way in the famous Code of Hammurabi. It is worth mentioning, however, that venereal diseases were common not only in the temple - but also in the streets, gardens, and fields. So the temple wasn't the only place to catch syphilis or gonorrhea.

Thorwald Jurgen wrote in his book Old Medicine. It's secret and power that in addition to the holy prostitutes in Babylon also acted so-called Kulu - male prostitutes who sexually served not only women but also men. There were also castrated slaves who were dragged into homosexual intercourse, the so-called Eunuchs. In the case of homosexual love, it is not surprising, because it appeared almost everywhere in ancient culture and was completely acceptable. Sometimes it was even preferred over heterosexuality, and this kind of lovemaking was considered unique.

As you can guess, syphilis began to develop very quickly in ancient Babylon after having sex with random people. Sexual ailments became almost something normal, and the inflammation of the intimate tract did not surprise anyone. It was believed, however, that Ishtar was punished for a reason - such as gonorrhea. The man's urine then changed color to "donkey urine". The punishment of the goddess was also to be pus and blood flowing from the male member. Of course, Ishtar also sent suffering to women who did not live according to divine laws.

To deal with ailments of the genital tract, a special tool was invented in Babylon, the so-called upu - in the form of a bronze tube through which the appropriate medicine was introduced into the genitals. It is very possible that during all this Sodom and Gomorrah, an invention was created that is one of the most significant in modern medicine - the catheter. Who would have thought that perhaps it is thanks to Ishtar that modern patients and doctors are much ... simpler?

Bibliography:

• Levin Hanoch: The Great Harlot of Babylon and other mythical plays, Agencja Drama and Teatr ADiT, Warsaw 2015
• Brenot Philippe, Coryn Laetitia: Sex Story. Sex history. From monkeys to robots, Elemental Publishing House, Warsaw 2019
• Stępień Marek: The Hammurabi Code, ALFA Publishing House, Warsaw 2000
• Thorwald Jurgen: Ancient Medicine. Its secrets and power, Wydawnictwo Literackie, Warsaw 2017