Chernobyl - history. How did the biggest disaster of a nuclear power plant happen?

 It is still difficult to unequivocally answer the question of who is to blame for the Chernobyl disaster of April 26, 1986. Most often, the fault is the constructional faults of the reactor or the operating errors of the nuclear power plant. How did the event that changed the face of nuclear energy happens?

The construction of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant began in the 1970s. The first reactor was put into operation in 1977. In the following years, more reactors were put into operation, including the fourth one in 1983, in which the catastrophe later took place. There were supposed to be 6 reactors in total, but after the accident, further expansion of the power plant was stopped.

RBMK-1000 reactors were used in Soviet power plants from the 1960s. They never met the safety standards of Western countries. Cooling with light water and graphite moderation made it possible to use uranium as fuel, which did not require additional enrichment. As a result, the RBMK type reactors are very economical, but also easily cause their instability.

The instability of the reactor is influenced by the increase in the amount of water vapor in its core. The increased presence of steam causes an increase in reactor power which in turn causes a further increase in the amount of steam produced. Thus, the reactor power gets out of control. And it was this mechanism that was to be the direct cause of the Chernobyl catastrophe.

The catastrophe took place during an experiment that was supposed to increase the safety of the power plant in an emergency. The test was to show how long, after a possible failure, the power plant would be able to produce energy for its own operation. The duration of the experiment was planned only for a minute.

Due to the planned experiment, many of the normally functioning security systems have been disabled. It was originally supposed to be carried out during the day, but due to the failure of another power plant, the authorities ordered the reactor shutdown delay to be delayed to compensate for electricity production. Power plant workers who came to work for the night shift were not sufficiently prepared for the night shift.

The consent to shut down the reactor did not come from Kyiv until 23:04. The power plant workers probably cut the reactor's power too much, which dropped to 10 MW. This caused an excessive release of xenon-135, which further reduced power, causing the so-called "Xenon poisoning". In such a situation, the reactor should be shut down for 24 hours. However, the plant operators were unaware of the "xenon poisoning" and began to ramp up the reactor power to a test level.

At 01:23:04 an unfinished experiment began. Due to many errors and flaws in the design itself, it got out of hand. The reactor became unstable, and the emergency systems that had been partially disabled earlier did not work. The operators pressed the safety button that was supposed to turn off the reactor in an emergency. However, by constructing the safety bars, which accelerated the reactions for a moment before the reactor died out, the system led to the release of even more energy. At 1:24 am, the pressure of the water vapor triggered the first explosion.

As a result of subsequent chemical reactions, a second explosion took place, after which several tons of graphite used in the power plant ignited. It was the fire that released the most radioactive dust into the atmosphere. According to the most popular theory (questioned by many scientists), an explosion in a power plant blew up a 1,200-tonne reactor shell.

It is still not clear whether the catastrophe is more to blame for human error or the design defects of the reactor itself. Soviet authorities and the court blamed the plant operator, including Anatoly Dyatlov, who supervised the experiment, for the disaster. He was sentenced to 10 years in prison, but due to ill health caused by radiation sickness, he was released from prison before the end of his sentence.

The research carried out in the 21st century indicates that the RBMK-1000 reactor had huge design flaws. Contemporary analyzes and simulations show that they are largely responsible for the catastrophe. This issue will probably never be finally clarified again. Some researchers believe that the seismic instability in the vicinity of the power plant may have contributed to the catastrophe. There are also theories that the Chernobyl disaster was a deliberate act by the Americans to weaken the Soviet Union

The USSR authorities initially denied the catastrophe and then provided meager and unverifiable data. This sparked speculation in Europe about thousands of casualties and a deadly threat to the people of Europe.- In Poland, on April 28, there was a marked increase in radioactive radiation. In a non-sovereign Poland, subordinated to Soviet interests, the censorship survived the information about the catastrophe for several dozen hours - said, prof. Jerzy Eisler in the "Chronicle of two millennia" broadcast. The official cause of the disaster, disclosed to the public by Soviet experts and the court, was gross violations of safety rules by the reactor's personnel. The power plant management and Anatoly Dyatlov, who supervised the experiment, were found guilty. He was the only one who lived to see the end of the trial. He was sentenced to 10 years in prison but was released early due to radiation sickness. He defended the operation all the time, citing design defects of the reactor as the cause of the disaster, which should never have been approved for operation.

Soon after the graphite fire broke out, the fire brigade arrived at the crash site. The firefighters were convinced that they were putting out an ordinary fire on the roof of the power plant. Nobody warned them of the dangers of exposure to radioactive smoke. Soon they got radiation sickness, which manifested itself through burns, bloody vomiting, and loss of consciousness. All the firefighters who first arrived at the crash site died in agony. Only their commander survived, who later underwent extensive treatment. The fire was suppressed for some time, but it broke out again with greater force.

On April 27, in the morning, Professor Borys Legasov arrived at the crash site. It was he who ordered the immediate evacuation of the 10-kilometer death zone, which included the nearby city of Pripyat. It was mainly inhabited by power plant workers and their families. On behalf of Legasov, several thousand tons of sand, boron, dolomite, clay, and lead were dropped from military helicopters onto the burning reactor. The material melted and formed a compact lump surrounding the reactor, which allowed the fire to be contained.

Water was also pumped out of tanks under the reactor to prevent an explosion that could contaminate another area. Then, with the help of miners from Tula, the reactor was secured from below with a "concrete pillow". As it turned out later, these actions were right, because after a few days the radioactive remains of the reactor burned through the original base and fell into the tank secured with a "concrete pillow". When the crash site was later investigated, a new highly radioactive crystalline substance was found, which was called Chernobylite.

The first message for residents living within a radius of 10 km from the crash site was issued on the order of Legasov only 36 hours after the explosion. In the following days, the evacuation zone was first expanded to 20 and then to 30 km around the plant. The compulsory evacuation involved a total of approx. 350 thousand. people. The army deported the inhabitants by force, making it impossible to take any items from them, which were then destroyed.

As a result of their injuries and as a result of irradiation, 31 power plant workers and firefighters trying to extinguish the fire died. More and more soldiers were needed to work at the crash site, and they were mobilized from the farthest parts of the country. They were called liquidators. 650 thousand people who participated in the work to clean up the disaster area were exposed to radiation. The authorities did not provide the liquidators with adequate protection against radiation. Many of the soldiers working at the crash site sooner or later felt the effects of radiation on their health.

According to official data, as a result of cancer diseases, 60 thousand. liquidators of the consequences of the disaster, approx. 5 thousand died people. And the Doctors Against Nuclear War report estimates the number of cases of thyroid cancer due to the catastrophe at 10,000. Doctors from this organization believe that there is still a possibility of another 50,000 cases of thyroid cancer. In addition, according to their report, the catastrophe resulted in 10,000 fetal deformities and the death of 5,000 infants. In 2005, one million children and 2 million adults had the status of disaster victims in Ukraine.

The highest authorities of the USSR in the first days after the catastrophe decided to withhold information about it. A brief statement was issued which was very sparse on the matter. The inhabitants of Belarus and Ukraine, most at risk from radiation, were officially ordered to participate in the May Day parades. It was only on May 14 that the first secretary of the CPSU, Mikhail Gorbachev, officially announced the accident and assured him in a speech that the Soviet authorities were in control of the situation.

In the West, however, a radioactive cloud spreading over Europe was immediately detected. The threat was taken very seriously and measures were put in place to counter any possible effects of irradiation.

The catastrophe certainly weakened the Soviet Union. Ukraine and Belarus, whose border lies near the power plant, suffered the most of the Soviet republics. According to Mikhail Gorbachev, the USSR spent the equivalent of $ 18 billion on plant shutdown and decontamination activities.

Although the remaining reactors at the Chernobyl plant returned to operation shortly after, construction of other Soviet power plants based on this technology was halted. Excluding 784,320 ha of agricultural land and 694,200 ha of forests from production had a significant impact on the country's economy. And we are talking about one of the most fertile areas of the USSR.

Politically, the catastrophe contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. It showed the weakness of the state and undermined the credibility of the communist system. Ukrainian researchers also emphasize its importance in the pursuit of Ukraine's independence. Another consequence of the disaster, which is still felt today, is the prevailing fear of nuclear energy, which leads to the decommissioning of nuclear power plants and the fear of opening more such facilities.

The last working reactor of the power plant was not closed until December 2000. In November 2016, new protection was slung over the crash site to protect the area from radiation. The Ark was financed with the help of Western countries, including Poland. The cover is to last for another 100 years.

The zone around the Chernobyl power plant is closed to this day. However, in the surrounding houses, you can meet people living in the wild, earning their living from agriculture, and the Chernobyl power plant itself and the deserted Pripyat have become a world-famous tourist attraction, visited by thousands of tourists every year.

The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES), developed in 1990, classifies incidents and accidents at nuclear facilities into seven levels. Both the Chernobyl reactor accident and the Fukushima nuclear disaster are classified in level 7 as a "major accident" involving the release of large amounts of radioactive radiation and having serious consequences for people and the environment.

If the term "nuclear disaster" is understood as not only accidents at nuclear facilities but also any man-made radioactive emissions, some events caused much more nuclear contamination than the Chernobyl accident, says Kate Brown, professor of science, technology, and society at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in an interview with DW.

- Take, for example, the radioactive fallout after the detonation of nuclear bombs during the times of ground-based nuclear weapons tests in regions around the world. And let's take just one isotope, radioactive iodine, which is harmful to human health because it is absorbed by the human thyroid gland and causes thyroid cancer and other diseases. It is estimated that Chernobyl released 45 million Ci (Ci-kiur - a unit of measure for radioactivity). The Soviets and Americans released 20 billion of you of radioactive iodine in just two test years in 1961 and 1962. And it did not happen as a result of an accident or as a result of human error - emphasizes the researcher.

Denis Wiszniewski, a biologist from the Chernobyl Biosphere Reserve, has been observing the nature around the crash site for twenty years. He had never seen two-headed wolves or five-legged rodents. 'The influence of ionizing radiation can with some probability cause changes in the body, but in most cases, it simply reduces the lifespan of the body,' he explained in an interview with DW.

For example, offspring of rodents with the mutations would still die during pregnancy. Errors in the genome or its disruptions lead to the fact that the body is unable to function, and animals born with disabilities would not be able to survive long in the wild, says Wiszniewski. He and his colleagues have studied thousands of animals in the Exclusion Zone over the past decades and found no strange morphological changes.

However, 35 years after the nuclear disaster, the land in the shutdown zone is still radioactively contaminated. One-third of the area is contaminated with transuranic elements with a half-life of over 24,000 years.

The restricted zone around Chernobyl has become a magnet for tourists from all over the world just 25 years after the nuclear disaster. The success of the HBO miniseries "Chernobyl" increased the number of visitors to 124,000 in 2019 - twice as many as in the previous year.

The State Exclusion Zone Management Agency reports that it is currently establishing more than 20 land, water, and air routes to facilitate visits. Strict security measures are in place during the visit to protect people. During the tour, it is obligatory to wear a dress that covers the body as much as possible, to navigate on official routes, and it is forbidden to eat and drink outdoors. According to official data, the potential radiation dose for a one-day visit is up to 0.1 millisieverts.

If such rules are followed, a visit to the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone is harmless to health, says Sven Dokter, spokesman for the German Society for the Safety of Nuclear Equipment and Reactors (GRS) in an interview for DW. - We are far from the dose ranges, which should be advised against in order to protect health. For comparison, on average, a person in Germany receives a radiation dose of just over 4 millisieverts per year. Half of it comes from natural radiation, to which we are always exposed, the other half comes mainly from medical applications and air travel, Dokter explains.

A dose of up to 0.1 millisievert can be obtained by cosmic rays, for example during a flight from Munich to Japan. And in some medical applications, the radiation dose is even much higher, says Dokter. The typical dose for a pelvic x-ray is 0.3-0.7 millisieverts and for a chest CT scan 4-7 millisieverts.

Chernobyl and Pripyat, a city built for nuclear power plant workers, are officially uninhabited. However, after the reactor crash in 1986, they were never completely abandoned. Since then, several thousand people have found employment in both cities. Most of them are men who work two-week shifts and ensure the functioning of the critical infrastructure in both cities - incl. because reactors 1-3, which survived the accident in reactor 4, were still in operation until 1991, 1996, and 2000, respectively.

Among the unofficial residents, there are people returning voluntarily. They settled on their own mainly in the years following the nuclear disaster in villages that have remained empty since the evacuation of more than 115,000 inhabitants. The exact number of returnees is unknown.

Despite the bans still in force, it is estimated that in 2016 there were still about 180 people living in the entire Exclusion Zone. As these are mainly elderly people, this number is trending downwards. The settlers are only tolerated by the authorities, yet they receive support from the state in everyday life. Postmen provide them with pensions once a month, and a door-to-door shop provides them with food every two or three months. There are also grocery stores in Chernobyl and even at least two hotels, although they are mainly intended for business travelers.

In May, measurements at the Chernobyl reactor are worrying. There are warnings that if this is not met with an appropriate response, another catastrophe may occur, wrote the New Scientist portal.

For over 35 years, that is, since the explosion of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor, scientists have been conducting measurements under the containment dome. According to the New Scientist portal, they have recently observed a sharp increase in nuclear reactions in the inaccessible chamber of the destroyed complex. They are now investigating whether the problem will stabilize or will require a dangerous and difficult intervention. Suspected sub-reactor 305/2 may be at fault. One of its chambers is most likely full of radioactive material. It has been unavailable since the disaster. One suggestion as to why this is so is that a new structure placed above a dilapidated reactor in 2016 is causing the power plant to dry up. As New Scientist writes, when uranium or plutonium fuel decays radioactively, it emits neutrons that can promote the fission reaction. Large amounts of water slow down this process.

The emission of neutrons from the 305/2 sub-reactor has increased by 40% since 2016. They are emitted by plutonium or uranium. There may be other uncontrolled reactions with dire consequences. Huge amounts of water are needed to slow down the processes. Unfortunately, the concrete structure above the reactor is drying up this place.

Don't Hold Back Your Thoughts

 The US space agency NASA recently recruited 24 theologians to participate in the Center for Theological Inquiry (CTI) program at Princeton University. The group will evaluate how humans will react if life is found on other planets, and how this discovery will affect our ideas about gods and creation.

CTI is defined as building "bridges of consensus by connecting theologians, academics and policymakers to think together and inform the public about global issues." NASA notes that the program aims to answer questions that have confused us from time immemorial, for example, what is life? What does it mean to live? Where to draw the border between a human and an alien? What are the possibilities for intelligent life elsewhere?

Andrew Davison, a theologian at Cambridge University with a Ph.D. in biochemistry at Oxford, has joined the ranks of NASA's theologians, convinced that the prospect of finding life on another planet is becoming more and more real. He has prepared for publication the book "Astrobiology and Christian Doctrine", which will be published next year. The book notes that followers of many religious traditions may accept the idea of ​​alien life.

Carl Pilcher, who headed the NASA Institute of Astrobiology until 2016, said the department wanted theologians "to consider the implications of applying the tools of science of the late 20th and early 21st century to issues that have been contemplated in religious traditions for hundreds or thousands of years." According to him, it is impossible to imagine that the Earth is the only place in the universe where life exists.

A group of astronomers, using data from several European Southern Observatory (ESO) telescopes and other instruments, discovered at least 70 new wandering planets in our galaxy. According to scientists' calculations, there may be several billion such wandering celestial bodies in the Milky Way. We found out about their existence relatively recently and we still do not know if and how this may pose a threat to the Earth.

In fact, humanity does not know as much about what is happening outside the solar system as scientists would like. And now there is still a period of active knowledge-gathering, which is largely related to the improvement of technical observation possibilities. Even about our home, about the solar system itself, people have very little knowledge of cosmic standards.

Yes, near-Earth, almost all celestial bodies are counted and included in textbooks, but about what is beyond Neptune's orbit, for example, we can often only guess and rely on theoretical research. For example, according to modern theory, there is a hypothetical region of the solar system - the Oort cloud - about one light-year from the sun - this is where long-period comets are formed, the period of rotation of which around the sun is over 200 years. But you couldn't see what the cloud looked like because it was too far away. The fastest spacecraft to leave the Solar System, Voyager 1, will not fly there until thousands of years, and most likely will no longer be operational by then. It is also impossible to see the Oort cloud with telescopes - modern optics are not yet capable of that.

Outside the solar system, the situation is even more complicated. Humanity can only actually observe very bright sources such as stars. Most of the other objects are found using mathematical calculations and observing the brightness of more noticeable objects. It was the change of light, the distortion of the propagation of electromagnetic radiation under the influence of gravity from other objects, that allowed people to see the invisible - to find planets near other stars. So usually an exoplanet is found based on the gravitational pull it exerts on its star (radial velocity method) or the brightness of the system, which is fainter as the planet passes in front of the star (transit method).

But this will not work with "wandering planets" because they are not bound by gravity to the stars. These are planets that for some reason broke away from the gravity of their star and flew into space. In 2011, scientists based on measurements suggested that there could be many such planets - without their "native" star, and in 2021 a group of European scientists was able to detect a small part of them with a very interesting method.

European experts took advantage of the fact that in the millions of years that have passed since their formation, these planets are still hot enough to glow in the infrared spectrum. This makes them available for direct detection using sensitive cameras mounted on large telescopes.

Simply put, with the ordinary eye you will not see someone in a completely dark room because nothing illuminates them, but you can use an infrared camera and see their thermal glow. Exactly this infrared observation technology will be used by the recently launched James Webb space telescope - JWST. It will probably detect many wandering planets.

However, this method only works for planets that are still hot and of sufficient size. Therefore, all found wandering planets have a mass comparable to that of Jupiter, which is over 300 times greater than that of the Earth. That is, there are likely to be small wandering planets, similar to the size of the Earth, but so far we have not been able to detect them.

To find these 70 planets, scientists used data from over 20 years of observations. At the same time, taking into account the enormous size of space, the chance of hitting such a wandering planet (even if there are several billion of them in the Milky Way) is still practically zero. Outside of the star systems, space is empty, with almost no matter in it. This means that even if such a planet is in the path of the solar system, it is very unlikely that it will affect the life of the Earthlings.

However, such a planet can have such large repercussions that the orbits of the current planets will change, which in the case of Earth could be associated with serious climate change. It cannot be ruled out that the gravitational impact of such a nearby wandering planet may bring more cosmic debris to our part of space, which could consequently threaten regular asteroid fire.

The famous Israeli medium - Uri Geller - said that contact with an extraterrestrial civilization is imminent, which will take place after many years of studying humanity by them. Uri Geller made this statement after studying NASA documents indicating that aliens have been on Earth since ancient times.

Geller believes mankind will see the stunning alien spacecraft landing, which he says will be similar to Steven Spielberg's staging of Close Encounters III. The 74-year-old clairvoyant and self-proclaimed psychic says "I have no doubts about the existence of aliens" and claims to have had his own UFO experiences. In an interview, he said: “I think they are studying us. I don't know what they really want.

Uri suggests that the first contact may be at the White House in the United States. The aliens will contact Earth first to make a "spectacular" landing. According to Uri Geller, this event will take place over the next century and will be very impressive.

“I don't think we are talking about thousands or even hundreds of years. If I were to make a rational and logical assumption, I would say that it will happen in 60-75 years "- said the 74-year-old fortune-teller

This is not the first time Geller has spoken about aliens. Earlier, he claimed that he collaborated with the CIA in this area and, on behalf of NASA, investigated wrecks of foreign ships. He also believes that the Pentagon "knows a lot more, but doesn't tell us."

The medium, however, does not know why the aliens eventually decide to reveal their presence, but sincerely believes they are friendly. He believes that if they had not been friendly, we would have been destroyed long ago.

A team of researchers at Kyoto University has succeeded in what previously only seemed possible in movies about the men in black. For the first time, scientists have managed to erase memories from the brain of a living person. The results of the experiment were published in the journal Science.

Specialists from Kyoto University have invented a neuro-optical system that can manipulate memories. It has been successfully tested in laboratory mice. Scientist Akihiro Goto commented: “In Men in Black, agents erase memories with a flash of light. We did something similar. "

Scientists used light to inactivate proteins needed for LTP, a special type of nervous activity that helps to strengthen memory. The major of these proteins is theophylline. It affects the synapses in the cerebral cortex and is very important for the formation of long-term memories.

Experts injected the adeno-associated virus (AAV), commonly used for gene delivery, into the brains of mice. It was conjugated with a modified cofilin protein and a fluorescent marker. When exposed to light, the virus released active oxygen which inactivated nearby compounds.

In this way, scientists worked on the hippocampus, the region of the brain responsible for storing memories. They taught the mouse certain activities, but after irradiation of the hippocampus, the rodent lost memory of the acquired skills. As a result, the researchers recorded the loss of memories of the task under study when comparing the effect to the flash of light from the memory neutralizer in the "Men in Black" movies.

The authors suggested that the new data obtained during the experiment would help in the treatment of a number of mental disorders, including Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia.

Astronomer Michael Rowan-Robinson of Imperial College London in Great Britain analyzed data collected by the IRAS astronomical satellite in 1983. The man claims to have discovered three-point sources that may indicate the existence of a Ninth Planet. The researcher noted that the chance of finding this mysterious celestial body by accident is rather small, but it is worth using this data for modeling and conducting a more targeted search.

Speculation about the existence of a hidden planet in the outer solar system has been going on for several decades. In 2016, it reached a new level with the publication of an article that offers new evidence of its existence. Astronomers Mike Brown and Konstantin Batygin of the California Institute of Technology found that small objects in the outer Kuiper belt in the solar system rotate in strange orbits as if pressed into a pattern by the gravitational influence of something large. If anything is hiding on the edge of our solar system, the mass of this object can be anywhere from 5-10 times the mass of the Earth. The mysterious planet is in the region of 400 to 800 AU (AU is the average distance between the Earth and the Sun).

IRAS operated for 10 months from January 1983, capturing 96 percent of the far-infrared sky. Small, cold objects like Planet Nine can be found mostly in this wavelength range, so Rowan-Robinson decided to analyze the data using parameters consistent with Planet Nine. Of the approximately 250,000 point sources detected by the satellite, only three are of interest as candidates for Planet Nine. In June, July, and September 1983, the satellite recorded objects that appeared to be moving in the correct part of the sky.

The region of the sky where the source appears is at low galactic latitude (ie, near the galactic plane) and is heavily influenced by galactic cirrus - filamentous clouds that glow in the far-infrared. Therefore, it is possible that the sources are noise from these clouds. Rowan-Robinson also noted that another highly sensitive device, the Pan-STARRS telescope, in operation since 2008, has failed to locate any candidate. If the status of the candidate for the ninth planet is confirmed, it will be possible to make some speculations about the ninth planet.

According to IRAS data, its mass is three to five times that of the Earth, and its orbital distance is about 225 AU. The movement of the source across the sky also gives us an idea of ​​the orbit of a potential planet, suggesting where to look for it now to get more accurate readings using the Pan-STARRS telescope. This article is available on the arXiv preprint server and has been approved for publication by the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.

Coptic text found in 1910 and acquired by J.P. Morgan in 1911, contains a cryptic description of Jesus as a shape-shifting creature. An ancient text written in the name of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, an eminent theologian of the 4th century, tells the story of Jesus' crucifixion in previously unknown details.

The ancient text refers to the famous kiss of Judas that sealed his betrayal. According to the canon of Scripture, the apostle Judas, in exchange for 30 pieces of silver, betrayed who Jesus was, which led to his arrest and crucifixion. Anyone who has heard of this historic betrayal has surely wondered what the point could be in identifying a man who was so famous for performing actual miracles. This apocryphal account explains that Judas used such a method because Jesus had the ability to change shape.

The apocryphal text suggests that Judas could not merely describe Jesus, but had to be present at the time of his arrest lest the messiah change form. The text is one of 55 Coptic manuscripts found in 1910 by villagers preparing the soil for fertilization on the site of the destroyed monastery of Archangel Michael of the Desert near Al-Hamula, Egypt. According to the repeated story, in the 10th century, monks buried the monastery manuscripts in a stone vat for safekeeping. It is worth adding that this understanding of the kiss of Judas has its roots in the distant past.

The explanation of the backstage of Judas' kiss first appeared thanks to Origen, a theologian who lived between 185 and 254 CE. In his work Contra Celsum, the ancient writer states that "to those who saw him [Jesus], he did not seem the same to all." Does this mean that Jesus possessed a power unknown until now that made it impossible to identify him? For a man who could walk on water, raise the dead, was able to feed 5,000 people with one loaf of bread and fish, and turn water into wine, such skills are rather not that difficult to adopt.

It should be remembered, however, that we are dealing with an apocryphal book. The Apocrypha, or non-canonical books, are full of content that, if accepted uncritically, can lead to great changes in Christianity. The apocryphal gospels reported that Jesus might have had a wife 1,500 years before Dan Brown. Hence the canon of the Holy Scriptures was adopted at the Council of Trent on April 8, 1546. It includes the 46 books of the Old Testament and 27 of the New Testament, and everything else is classified as the Apocrypha.

This applies, for example, to the Book of Enoch (or Enoch), about which we have spoken many times. The brief excerpt from 1 Enoch is consistent with the New Testament Jude, but the prophet's visions, dreams, and revelations during his visit to heaven, and the Nefilim motif as a result of angels' relationships with humans daughters, were not approved by the church.

Rejecting Apocrypha that does not conform to the vision of the events that underpin religion can be an automatic psychological response to ensure that the human worldview does not collapse. If even the dogma of Jesus' divinity were to be called into question, what would remain of the Catholic faith? What if the famous "Star of Bethlehem" and its surprising appearance in the night sky was not the result of a plan of heavenly forces, but rather extraterrestrials who, using their technology indistinguishable from magic, started the greatest revolution in the history of the human race?

A few years ago, a book was written by Dr. Robert Lanz entitled "Biocentrism: How Life and Consciousness Are the Keys to Understanding the Nature of the Universe" caused a great deal of confusion. It contained the thesis that life does not end when the body dies and can practically last forever.

The author of this publication is not just anybody. Lanza has been named by the New York Times as the third most important living scientist. He is a specialist in regenerative medicine on a daily basis. In his professional life, he is involved in stem cell research, and in the past, he has also had episodes related to the cloning of endangered animal species. So it is not a man from nowhere. Some time ago, a scientist became interested in physics, quantum mechanics, and astrophysics. Something interesting must have emerged from the amalgamation of such disciplines, and this is how the theory of biocentrism emerged, which the scientist has been preaching for some time.

According to this hypothesis, consciousness is the basis of the universe. They make up the material universe, not the other way around. Lanza points out that the laws of nature and the cosmological constants appear to be attuned to the existence of life. In his opinion, it follows that intelligence existed before matter. It is no wonder, moreover, if you know the case of the so-called observer paradox. At the quantum level, the mere fact of observing a given frame of reference interferes with this system, determining a specific state. This means that without an observer, physical phenomena may simply not exist.

The theory of biocentrism assumes that death of consciousness simply does not exist. Death is a mental creature because people identify with their bodies. The material shell has to die sooner or later, and the same seems to be happening to consciousness. However, if we recognize that it is consciousness that creates our body and describes it as a television signal, what is later seen on the receiver, it becomes obvious that the physical disintegration of our shell is not the end of our consciousness.

Simply, consciousness exists beyond the limits imposed on us by time and space. In other words, it is not locally assigned to the body, but is a quantum object, as a rule not assigned to a place. It is an object that is defined in three-dimensional space thanks to the phenomenon of quantum decoherence, i.e. the ultimate force determining the direction in which a given quantum system will go.

According to Dr. Lanza, in one universe our body may already be dead, but there will always be some other universe in which our consciousness can define itself by gaining a temporary assignment to time and space. If this theory were true, it would mean that after death our consciousness does not go to hell or heaven, but to another universe.

John F. Kennedy - biography, road to the White House, politics, death

 John F. Kennedy, known under the initials JFK, is the most famous politician and president of the United States. What was Kennedy's career and the Cold War-like during his presidency? How did the American president die, and when did his death take place? Learn more about the life, foreign policy, and death of John F. Kennedy.

John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born in Brookline. He was the son of politician and businessman Joseph Patrick Kennedy Sr. and Rose Kennedy née Fitzgerald. The boy's grandfather (young Kennedy's namesake) was a US congressman and the mayor of Boston - it was he who instilled in his grandson an interest in history and politics. Young John F. Kennedy had eight siblings. The boy lived in Brooklyn for 10 years, attending the local St. Aidan. He then attended several private schools in the Boston area. The Kennedy family later moved to New York City, where John continued his education at the Riverdale Country Private Boys School.

During the following years of his education, John Kennedy often struggled with various health problems. The culminating point was John's sudden hospitalization in 1934 (Yale-New Haven Hospital). The boy was suspected of having leukemia, but finally, he was diagnosed with colitis. In 1935, young Kennedy flew to London to study at the London School of Economics. John's health worsened again, and he returned to the US that same year. In September 1936, Kennedy enrolled at Harvard University near Boston. In June 1938, John, together with his father and older brother, left for London to work at the American Embassy. During this trip, John managed to collect materials for his thesis, which he defended with honors at Harvard (1940).

In 1941, JFK joined the Navy. It was sent to the front of World War II. He commanded the PT-109 torpedo patrol boat, stationed in the Solomon Islands. He then took command of the PT-59, barely escaping the turbulent experiences of previous missions. Due to a serious back injury in April 1945, Kennedy was honorably demobilized from service, leaving her with the rank of lieutenant. John's older brother, Joe, died during World War II. He was the political representative of the Kennedy family. The death of his brother made foreign policy a task for John.

JFK was first elected to the House of Representatives in 1946. He served the Chamber for the next 6 years, gaining the support of many supporters. John was most interested in international affairs. He supported the doctrine of Truman (former US president) as valid at the time the Cold War began to be born. Kennedy then began preparations to submit his candidacy to the Senate (1952). He won the election with 70,000 votes ahead of Henry Cabot Lodge and sat in the US Congress.

On September 12, 1953, John married Jacqueline Bouvier, later known to America as Jackie Kennedy. His wife gave birth to three children (the youngest lived only 2 days). Biographers believe that the marriage was not a happy one. Jackie Kennedy was often left alone while her husband cheated on her regularly. Kennedy's wife was the most famous first lady of the United States and was hailed as a fashion icon of the 1960s.

Kennedy has undergone many spine surgeries in the meantime. So it happened that he was absent from the Senate. During his convalescence in 1956, he began to think about running for president of the United States. His candidacy officially appeared on January 2, 1960. John was a staunch Catholic, so some accused him of surrendering the United States to the Pope. Kennedy ran a high-profile presidential campaign, touted by his wife and financed by his father and younger brother, Robert, the campaign manager. Kennedy traveled extensively to gain support among the democratic elite and voters. In 1961 John F. Kennedy won the elections and on January 20 he was officially sworn in as president.

Kennedy brought a lot of freshness to the White House. JFK was ready to make more and more lightning-fast political decisions. He chose experienced people, but also less sophisticated in the world of politics. The president did not want to miss a chance of re-election in 1964. To ally with the people and show them support on the cause of racial discrimination, he appointed African Americans to various positions. Martin Luther King received federal protection from Kennedy during the protests in Alabama. After all, the law prohibiting racial discrimination was signed by him only 2 years later.

The real "horse" of John F. Kennedy, however, was foreign policy. It was almost fully dominated by the American confrontations with the Soviet Union. To this day, biographers have been wondering whether John Kennedy was a supporter of the Soviet Union's policy or its opponent. Historical evidence shows that the American president was quite cleverly balancing both ideas. Among the highlights of President Kennedy's reign were:

• Invasion of the Bay of Pigs (April 17-19, 1961) - Cuban emigrants then wanted to get to southern Cuba and form a provisional Cuban government to overthrow Fidel Castro.
• The deterioration of US relations with Israel and other Arab states - John F. Kennedy favored the Zionist movements. The then secretary of the Arab League considered that the actions of the United States were destroying the balance in the Middle East.
• Establishing diplomatic relations with the First Secretary of the CPSU, Nikita Khrushchev - Khrushchev proposed a draft peace treaty between East Germany and West Germany. Kennedy made no reference to the issue of German reunification, and he also denied Germany access to American nuclear weapons.
• Tightening contacts with the Soviet Union - due to the placement of Soviet missiles in Cuba in 1962. Spy planes photographed Soviet-built rocket stations on Cuban soil. The president blocked the sea route to Cuba for the USSR to withdraw its missiles. This led to the most serious US-Soviet crisis of World War II. Ultimately, both parties made agreements
• Supplying nuclear weapons to NATO - despite the reluctance to equip other countries with them. On June 10, 1963, John F. Kennedy proposed that testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere be discontinued. Nikita Khrushchev agreed with the president, and the treaty was officially signed on July 25.

John Kennedy was still thinking about re-election in 1964. So he planned a trip around the United States to win more popular support. The last point of his trip turned out to be Dallas, called the "City of Hate" for a reason. The newspapers in Dallas accused the head of state of sympathizing with the communists and of betraying the American people. Shots rang out as the president and his wife drove a limousine across Ross Avenue towards Dealey Plaza on November 22, 1963. John F. Kennedy was shot in the neck and head. He died on the same day, just after 1 p.m.

The President of the United States was buried on November 25, 1963, at the Arlington National Cemetery. Hours after the murder, Lee Harvey Oswald was caught, accusing him of the assassination of the president. John F. Kennedy died at the age of 46, being head of state for 1,036 days. Kennedy's assassination was a key moment in the political history of the entire United States.

Bibliography:

• Longin Pastusiak: Presidents of the United States of America, Iskry Publishing House, Warsaw 1999
• Brogan Hugh: John Fitzgerald Kennedy, Ossolineum Publishing House, Warsaw 2003
• O'Reilly Bill, Dugard Martin: To Kill Kennedy, Burda Media Polska Publishing House, Warsaw 2013

Death of Marilyn Monroe - date, causes, conspiracy theories, funeral

 Without a shadow of a doubt, the death of Marylin Monroe is one of the greatest mysteries in the history of movie stars. Monroe died young, only 36 years old. To this day, people wonder about the motive of her death. Was it suicide? Or maybe an overdose of drugs that the star was taking? What are the causes and conspiracy theories about the death of Marilyn Monroe?

Marylin Monroe was known for her rather scandalous life. She had a romance with many men, but also women. Drugs, medications, alcohol, and other stimulants were no strangers to her everyday life. In her short life, the actress struggled with many problems, incl. with insomnia, neurosis, depression, low self-esteem, or stage fright. The chaos of life was soothed by strong sleeping pills and anesthetics. The woman attempted suicide several times, intertwined with acting in more and more outstanding films by famous directors. Unfortunately, the young age of the star and such a huge, world career, instead of taking Monroe to the heights, dragged her into the abyss with no way out.

Marylin Monroe died on August 5, 1962. According to witnesses, she spent the last day before her death in her own home, located in Los Angeles at 12305 Fifth Helena Drive Street. It is also known that she met on the eve of her death, among others with the photographer, but also with Dr. Ralph Greenson - she had therapeutic sessions with him. She also spoke to Joe DiMaggio on the phone - an ex-husband with whom she again planned a future together. Why on August 5, 1962, in the morning, the actress was found dead in bed in her house? The sudden death of the actress shocked the whole world, and conspiracy theories are still in use today.

It is known that Marilyn spoke with Joe DiMaggio around 7:00 p.m. During the interrogation, the man admitted that Marilyn's voice did not indicate anything disturbing. The movie star entered her bedroom at around 8 p.m. She was on phone calls with Peter Lawford (English actor), who reportedly sensed something disturbing in her voice. The actor informed Monroe's housekeeper, Eunice Murray, of his suspicions. This one alerted Peter that everything was fine.

When it struck 3 a.m. on August 5, 1062, the housekeeper began to wonder about the still-smoldering light in Monroe's bedroom. The housekeeper immediately contacted the actress's therapist, who came and got into the woman's room, breaking the glass. Unfortunately, it was too late. He found the actress on the bed, dead and naked, holding a telephone receiver in her hand. Official sources and an autopsy indicate the actress's death was caused by suicide - an overdose of sleeping pills. No other reason was looked for because the actress had wanted to end her life many times before. It was therefore suspected that suicide was the cause of her death.

On August 8, 1962, the funeral of the American actress took place. Burial took place at Westwood Memorial Cemetery. The death of Marilyn Monroe has become a major topic not only in the United States but also around the world. From that moment on, various conspiracy theories began to be spun around the death of the popular actress. Similar emotions aroused, among others the death of Elvis Presley, which is also said to this day.

Anthony Summers is an Irish biographer who, in his book about Marylin Monroe, theorized about the actress's mental problems, but also Monroe's affair with John F. Kennedy and his brother, Robert F. Kennedy. First, the actress had an affair with the then US president, John. When the affair ended, Monroe immediately "threw herself into the arms" of his brother, Robert.

According to Anthony, the actress, after ending her passionate relationship with Robert, threatened him to sell nuances about their romance at the next press conference. According to him, the drugs were just a cover, and Monroe's death was faked. Interestingly, the actress allegedly accidentally overdosed on drugs, dying on the way to the hospital. Before Monroe's death was officially announced, Kennedy was due to leave Los Angeles. At that time, the star's body was to be brought to her home. More interestingly, the actress's housekeeper confirmed that she saw Robert on the day of Monroe's death. Or maybe it was Robert F. Kennedy who poisoned Monroe, fearing his unflattering publicity?

John Miner relied heavily on tape transcripts in investigating Monroe's death. The actress was supposed to record them before her death and give them to her therapist, Dr. Greenson. They showed that the star did not want to kill herself, on the contrary - she wanted to make the most of her life, ending the sad and depressive stage. According to the prosecutor, the actress's housekeeper was responsible for Monroe's death, who was supposed to give her an enema of dissolved pentobarbital (a hypnotic and sedative). The more so because before the police came home, the housekeeper was supposed to keep the sheets in Monroe's room.

It is worth adding that the prosecutor took part in the autopsy of Marylin Monroe, noting that there was an excess of toxic substances in the body (4.5 mg per 100 ml of blood), but the stomach was ... completely empty. The closely examined body did not reveal any traces of, inter alia, needles. Interestingly, Monroe took enemas from time to time to cleanse herself. Could it be that the young actress died from this surgery? The tapes on the basis of which John Miner conducted his investigation have never been found.

There are many conspiracy theories about the death of the actress. Her death caused a storm of conspiracy theories, as did the death of Elvis Presley and his funeral. One of the hypotheses is also the contribution of two doctors to the death of the actress - the aforementioned therapist, Dr. Greenson, but also Dr. Hyman Engelberg (another actress's doctor). It was Greenson who had commissioned the actress's housekeeper to give her a chlorine hydrate enema - but without realizing that Dr. Engelberg had already written pentobarbital on the star. It was this dangerous combination that would have killed Monroe.

In turn, the paramedic who came to the place of the actress's death admitted that he saw Greenson injecting the actress with ... poison into the heart. Was it really his doing? Especially possibly since the doctor was probably having an affair with Monroe. Fearing rumors of sexual contact with the patient, he could be sentenced to end his medical career. Maybe it forced him to kill the famous American movie star?

How was it really? Was Marylin Monroe killed? Or maybe she committed suicide herself, burdened with mental problems and stifled by a great career? Unfortunately, how many people, so many theories. It doesn't look like we'll ever know a real secret after Marilyn Monroe's death. The only thing left to do is… guesswork.

Bibliography:

• Donald Spoto: Marilyn Monroe. Biography, Prima Publishing House, New York 2001
• Alfonso Signorini: Marilyn. Live and die of love, Świat Książki Publishing House, Warsaw 2004
• Churchwell Sarah: Twarze Marylin Monroe, Marginesy Publishing House, Warsaw 2018

Surprising facts from the life of Princess Diana. Do you know everything about it?

 The former Princess of Wales, known worldwide as Diana or Lady Di, was a great inspiration to the British. She was adored not only for her good heart but also for her extraordinary style - both in fashion and being. Unfortunately, on August 31, 1977, Princess Diana died in a car accident in Paris. The news of her death shocked Britain, and the whole world was broadcasting videos from Buckingham Palace, in front of which thousands of flowers and candles were laid in tribute to Lady Di. Where did the phenomenon of Princess Diana come from? Here are the surprising facts from the life of the duchess that influenced the overall phenomenon of this amazing woman.

Diana's complicated life was full of mysteries. Some were loud, while others everyone chose to forget. One of the surprising and, at the same time, the most unpleasant facts in Diana's life are the circumstances of meeting Prince Charles. Diana met the prince exactly in 1977. However, few people realize that it was not a romantic love at first sight. Before Prince Charles began seriously dating Diana, he had an affair with the elder sister of the future Princess of Wales, Sarah Spencer (now Lady Sarah McCorquodale). Their romance was fiery until Charles found out that the fire burns only ... on his part. Sarah announced to a friend reporter (Jamesomi Whittaker) that: "(...) it doesn't matter if he was a garbage man or an English king.", "(...) I have no feeling for him anyway." This was the moment when Charles became interested in Diana.

Diana and Charles flirted with each other. The prince, however, did not shy away from other romances, between meeting Diana and the second. Charles adored women, but all were disqualified by their ethnicity or religion. At one point, however, there was a turning point. At one of the parties in 1980, the couple began to get closer. Charles was then 32 years old, and each of the royal family insisted that the man finally settle down. Was there really any chemistry between the couple? Well, Prince Charles thought Diana was just the right game for him. From a respected family and with good origins. This outweighed their relationship. Prince Charles proposed to Diana in February 1981 at Windsor Castle. Queen Elizabeth II did accept this relationship. However, as people whispered in the corners, she did so reluctantly.

On July 29, 1981, Prince Charles married Diana. Diana was less than 20 at the time. The woman was watched more clearly not only by the British but also by women from all over the world. About 750 million people worldwide saw the wedding broadcast. The duchess' wedding dress had a huge impact on when Diana was hailed as a fashion icon. The dress is made of silk and antique flounces. During the ceremony, the duchess was wearing a family tiara from the 18th century, and a small blue bow was sewn in the waist of the dress - which not everyone knows either. More interestingly, the dress tag also contained a small, gold (18 carats) horseshoe, fortunately, pierced with diamonds.

The duchess's creation had to be specific, just as her whole character was original. Diana loved to play with fashion, becoming a style icon. Designers from all over the world loved her, sewing stylish creations for her. Even though the Duchess is no more, the world is still inspired by her original sense of style. Women were fascinated by the fact that Princess Diana was constantly breaking the royal etiquette, showing herself at official receptions, e.g. in a dress with bare shoulders.

Before marriage, Diana began to lose weight rapidly. No one had any idea what had caused the duchess to lose such a sudden weight. Only years later it turned out (interview with British journalist Andrew Morton, 1997) that it was Prince Charles' fault. Diana confessed to him, "I remember one day my husband put his hand on my waist and found me plump." These words hit Diana hard - to such an extent that before trying on the wedding dress she was about 74 cm waist, and before the wedding, she was less than 60 cm. That is why several different versions of the corset for the bride-to-be have been created so that it fits well on her figure. The final version was not sewn into the dress until the wedding day.

From the moment of this infamous confession of Karol, Princess Diana's problems with bulimia also began. Nobody in the royal family spoke about Diana's mental health. It was not until 1992 that the Duchess first admitted to having problems with an eating disorder. Its openness has won the approval of the British and the rest of the world. Especially since bulimia was a taboo subject back then.

On June 21, 1982, William, the first son of Diana and Charles, was born. Of course, it was great happiness for the entire royal family - especially since it was the son who would be one of the heirs to the throne. Diana was happy too but slowly fell into more and more depression. The Duchess struggled with her for a long time, struggling with unfulfilled love (Karol continued to betray her), bulimia, and suicidal thoughts. The birth of a child only made her poor condition worse. After all, she gave her whole heart to William, and he was the only ray of hope in the ever sadder life of the Duchess. Despite the fact that Diana knew fashion like no other and was the best-dressed woman in the whole of Great Britain, she began to pass for a capricious princess. At the time, however, no one had any idea how the duchess was struggling with great mental problems.

On September 15, 1984, another son of Diana and Charles, Harry, was born. Prince Charles wanted a daughter very much, so Diana kept the gender of the child from him. At the hospital, Prince Charles reacted to his son like, “Oh boy. And she has red hair. ” Diana then confessed to her friends that she had enough. The Duchess loved her sons and devoted a lot of time to them. Her husband did not love her even though Diana gave him her heart. Unfortunately, Prince Charles had an affair with Camilla Parker-Bowles, Duchess of Cornwall (although they both denied it). In order not to think about problems, Princess Diana began to act for charity and charity, helping sick, poor, and homeless people.

The birth of Harry was the beginning… the end of Charles's marriage with Diana. Unfortunately, an unhappy marriage. The princess was not helped by the press, which constantly followed her and at all costs wanted to catch her in an unfortunate situation. The marriage was going through a crisis - Charles was romancing Camilla, and Diana was depressed and tried to seek consolation from her friends, such as Captain James Hewitt and David Waterhouse.

In June 1992, Andrew Morton's book "Her True Story" was released. It contained a lot of information about the entire marriage of Charles with Diana, as well as the affairs of both of them. It was from this book that the world learned, among others about the duchess' bulimia, but also about suicide attempts. This position aroused considerable controversy and a lot of speculation, although it was not objective. However, with the publication of the book, Diana again gained the love of people - it turned out that her "humor" did not take from the air.

A few months after the book was published, Diana and Charles were announced to be separated at Buckingham Palace. Officially, the divorce was finalized in August 1996. Diana was allowed to retain the title of Princess of Wales, and the palace was to finance her every official trip. The duchess also retained parental rights on the condition that she would not give any interviews compromising the royal family.

Even though Diana was no longer with Prince Charles, she continued her duties. She began to live life to the fullest, freeing herself from a toxic relationship, which she finally began to understand. She was a good woman who dazzled wherever she went. Everyone loved her as much as Diana loved people. The Duchess devoted herself to charity, which she became famous for.

She collected, among others money to fund women's breast cancer research (along with the wife of then US President Bill Clinton). Not only that, she helped AIDS patients, often visiting hospitals. She took part in charity actions and put her dresses up for auction (at the instigation of William's son). She was also interested in the problems that threatened civilians. Together with the British Red Cross, she even traveled to Angola (Central Africa). The British said about the Duchess that she, the only one in the entire royal family, felt the problems of the community and reacted to them.

The Princess of Wales was only 36 years old when she died. The accident happened on August 31, 1997. The Mercedes Diana was traveling in crashed against a pillar in the Paris Alma Tunnel while escaping from photojournalists. Unfortunately, no one survived. How did Prince Charles react? In the book "Harry. Biography "you can read:

"The father's crying happily did not wake the boys. They slept peacefully as he wandered alone on the moor in search of words with which he would tell his sons that they would never see their beloved mother again. Charles knew how Diana loved and cared for her sons. He also knew that her death would leave an unimaginable void in their lives. "

Princess Diana's funeral, which took place on September 6, 1997, was viewed by approximately 2.5 billion people around the world. Famous people also said goodbye to her, incl. Elton John, George Michael, Karl Lagerfeld, Margaret Thatcher, Hillary Clinton, Donatella Versace, and Steven Spielberg. The world will forever remember Lady Di as a style icon and a reflection of goodness. Princess Diana is no longer in the world, but she remains in the hearts of all people. Forever.

Sources:

• Morton Andrew, Diana. Prawdziwa Historia, Nasza Księgarnia Publishing House, Warsaw 1992
• Clarke Mary, Diana. Niespełnicze sny, Marba Crown Publishing House, Warsaw 1996
• Davies Nicholas, Diana. The Lonely Duchess, Świat Książki Publishing House, Warsaw 1997
• Krajski Stanisław, Princess Diana and the agony of Europe, Agencja SGK, Warsaw 1997
• Burrel Paul, In royal service. Memoirs of Princess Diana's butler, Magnum Publishing House, Warsaw 2003
• Nicholl Katie, Harry. Biography, Prószyński Media Publishing House, Warsaw 2018

Estée Lauder - how did she conquer the whole world with her cosmetics?

 Estée Lauder is the founder of a world-famous cosmetic concern. Fragrances, perfumes, and cosmetics produced by the concern are sold in many countries. You could even say that, in a way, this billionaire has become to the cosmetics industry what Sam Walton is to commercial activities - and maybe even more. Like him, she focused on innovative solutions, especially in the field of direct marketing: her main weapons were free samples, demonstrations, and promotions. Estée Lauder's influence on the cosmetics industry is unquestionable.

The exact date of birth of Estée Lauder, and more specifically of Josephine Esther Mentzer, has never been formally confirmed. The most common date is July 1, and for the year: it is speculated that she was born in 1906 or 1908 in Queens, New York. As she wrote about her age in her autobiography: this is the best-kept secret since the Allied invasion of Normandy (Cross, p. 243). When asked about her age, she liked to say that it didn't matter.

Her parents, Rose Rosenthal Schotz and Max Mentzer were from Hungary and Czechoslovakia respectively, Max Mentzer owned a hardware store where his daughter even had the opportunity to arrange display windows. Estée Lauder was the youngest of their children. She attended a school not far from her father's store and graduated from Newton High School in Queens. She inherited her middle name from her aunt, and its colloquial sound - Esty - evolved into the well-known French version of it.

Estée Lauder first encountered the beauty business thanks to her uncle, Dr. John Schotz. He was a chemist who came from Hungary to the United States in 1900. He had his own company, New Way Laboratories, which he founded in 1924. It is said that he even prepared his cosmetics in the kitchen of the Mentzer family in Queens, which his niece was watching. Estée Lauder worked at her uncle's company as a saleswoman until the 1940s, selling, among others, his then-famous Viennese cream. Soon, however, she was about to start selling her own fragrance compositions.

On January 15, 1930, she married Joseph Lauter, son of Austrian immigrants. Over time, he changed the wording of his surname to the original, family name, i.e. Lauder. In 1933 their first son Leonard was born. Interestingly, at that time, Estée also dreamed of an acting career, she even tried her strength by playing at the Cherry Lane theater in New York. However, this passion lost out to her passion for cosmetics, and she was doing better and better in this industry. Estée and Joseph's paths temporarily parted ways, reportedly in part due to disagreements over Estée's successes. On April 11, 1939, the couple divorced, and Estée left for Florida with her son. However, three years later, when Leonard fell ill with mumps, they decided to go back together. Later, on December 7, 1942, they got married again, so that, as Estée herself said, they would not be separated for more than a few days. This year, their second son, Ronald, was born. In 1946, she and her husband founded their own company, Estée Lauder Company. At the beginning of their journey, they owned "only" $50,000.

In February 1944, she established her own office. Shortly thereafter, she won a concession to sell at the Bonwit Teller supermarket to sell on Saks Fifth Avenue. However, Bob Fiske, head of the Saks cosmetics division, refused to grant her a license, saying there was no demand for Estée Lauder's products. She herself, therefore, decided, as Jayanta Nanda writes about it, to create a demand. The cosmetics produced by her were distributed during the event at the Waldorf-Astoria hotel, and in the future, it was to often use various types of shows. Bob Fiske had to revise his attitude.

This was the first example of Estée Lauder's use of direct marketing. She finally obtained the license in 1948, and Robert Fiske's first order was for $800. At the launch of the sale on Saks Fifth Avenue, she sent out gold-lettered invitations to key customers in the store, letting them know that a free cream powder would be included with each purchase they made. Her cosmetics stocks (cosmetics, perfumes) sold out in just two days.

In 1950, she established cooperation with Nieman Marcus located in Dallas, Texas. Another example of the use of direct marketing by Estée Lauder was the actions taken by her when the BBD & O agency dealing with marketing activities refused to organize her advertising campaign. So Estée Lauder decided (using a mailing list from Saks) to send out free samples of her cosmetics by post, which was to serve as an incentive to buy them later. Later, it only improved its marketing methods, introducing various types of innovative solutions and promotions. For example, when buying its products, you would get a free gift (Nanda, pp. 251-252). The strength of Estée Lauder's marketing activities is also her advertising slogans. One of her famous advertising slogans was: "Time is not on your side, but I am."

On the one hand, in marketing, she largely focused on direct contact with potential clients, believing that it was more effective than any advertisement, e.g. in a newspaper. Mary Cross mentions in this context her famous "three-part" marketing motto: "Tell-A-Gram, Tell-A-Phone, Tell-A-Woman" (Cross, p. 246). Ordinary word of mouth was a tool she used extensively. On the other hand, she tried to use famous women to promote her products. For example, she sent samples of the Duchess of Windsor and the then Hollywood star Grace Kelly. She assumed, not unreasonably, that both the public comments of such women and the conversations they had with their friends would increase the number of her clients. It is possible that she did not hesitate to spontaneously create events to further increase the recognition of her brands. Mary Cross supposes it might not be a coincidence that she spilled Youth Dew perfumes at the Lafayette Gallery in Paris - such spectacular fragrances must have attracted customers.

Simultaneously with conducting marketing activities, Estée Lauder developed its cosmetics offer. The fragrances of the perfumes produced by the concern are certainly known. In 1953, the aforementioned Youth Dew perfumes appeared on the market, in 1965 the Aramis line for men was introduced, 1978 was the time of White Linen, and in 1985 another famous line, simply called Beautiful, entered the market. There was also an increase in the number of places where you could buy Estée products that had "crossed" the border of the United States. In 1960, the first foreign point of sale was opened, it was located in Harrods, London. In the following years, more points began to be created in South America, Australia, Germany, France, Japan, and Belgium. Estée Lauder Company even managed to enter the USSR, which happened in 1973, and to the People's Republic of China in 1993.

For a long time, Estée Lauder tried to maintain the family nature of her company. It only gradually withdrew from direct management of the business. For example, in 1972, she transferred control of the company to her son Leonard. The family nature of the company did not change until 1995 when the company went public and the founder retired. Ronald did the same in 1999, after 27 years as president. On April 24, 2004, Estée Lauder died. She was 97 then.

However, the Lauder family still owns a significant number of shares, and over the years both her sons Leonard and Ronald, her daughter-in-law Evelyn, grandson William and great-granddaughters Aerin and Jane were involved in their activities over the years. Currently, the CEO is William Lauder, Leonard Lauder is in the company as retired president, Ronald Lauder is the president of Clinique Laboratories (interestingly he was also the US ambassador to Austria for some time, he also worked for the Pentagon), Jane Lauder - executive vice president.

Estée Lauder herself has had many successes. The French government awarded her with the Order of the Legion of Honor. US President Richard Nixon wanted her to become the US ambassador to Luxembourg, but she refused. She was included (as one of the few women) by Forbes magazine in the list of the 400 richest Americans. In turn, in 1998, "Time" placed her as the only woman among the 20 most influential people of the twentieth century. In her life, she successfully competed with other women who promoted their cosmetics brands, fragrance compositions and who started their activity even before herself. Examples of such women include Helena Rubinstein, born in Krakow, and Elizabeth Arden.

The financial results of the company established by Estée Lauder are spectacular. In 1968, the company had revenues of $ 40 million, the first billion reached in 1985, while in 1999 it was already 3 billion, and in 2008 the revenues reached 6.4 billion. Estée Lauder brands are Aveda, Bobbi Brown, Clinique, Flirt, Donna Karan Cosmetics, Aramis, La Mer, Tommy Hilfiger Cosmetics, MAC, and Origins. Many of them were simply taken over by Estée Lauder. This was the case with MAC in 1994-1998, Bobbi Brown and Aveda in 1997, Stila Cosmetics in 1999, and Jo Malone in 2000.

These products are sold in over 130 countries, so the fragrances produced by Lauder Companies are known in most countries of the world. More than half of the company's turnover comes from the Americas, 1/3 in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, and just over 10% in the Asia-Pacific region. In 2008, the Estée Lauder Companies "was responsible" for 45% of luxury cosmetics produced in the United States and 20% of such cosmetics in Europe and Australia.

At the same time, the giant responsible for the famous fragrances created by Estée Lauder was repeatedly involved in charity activities. He financially supported the renovation of the Weralski Palace, and on the other hand, the construction of playgrounds in Central Park in New York. It declares itself as a company that does not test its products on animals unless required to do so by law. On the other hand, as is the case with probably every financial giant, the Estée Lauder Company is not entirely free from controversy. As Julie Willet recalls, when the campaign for safe cosmetics was carried out in 2005 in California, the Estée Lauder Company lobbied against actions aimed at introducing legal regulations that would oblige cosmetic companies to inform about the use of all toxic chemical ingredients in their cosmetics.

Bibliography:

• Careers in Consumer Products. 2008 Edition, Wet Feet, San Francisco 2008.
• M. Cross (ed.), 100 People Who Changed 20th-Century America, ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara 2013.
• R. Grayson, Estée Lauder. Businesswoman and Cosmetics Pioneer, ABDO Publishing Company, North Mankato 2014.
• J. K. Nanda, Management Thought, Sarup & Sons, New Dehli 2006.
• J. Willett (eds.), The American Beauty Industry Encyclopedia, Greenwood, Santa Barbara 2010.
• The official website of Estée Lauder Companies https://www.elcompanies.com and its Polish version: www.esteelauder.pl, accessed: 13/08/2021.

Women in early Hollywood - Did the Coming of the Sound Film Era Hurt Their Position?

 When we look at the last 20, 30, 40 years of Hollywood history and the film industry in general, we see the increasing role of women emerging in management and director positions, not primarily actresses. However, such a situation is not new to cinematography, because women have already held such high positions, but it has already been forgotten. This continued until the 1920s and 1930s when the film was more of an art than a business. Unfortunately, the change in the way Hollywood works and the way we think about women at that time has led to the fact that many of them, such as Alice Guy-Blaché, have disappeared from the industry. But what exactly happened then?

Although women directors appeared in the history of cinematography at an early stage, their work remains almost unknown today. You can mention here a number of names of women whose activities were later forgotten: "Alice Guy from France, Esfir Szub from the Soviet Union, Maya Deren and Lois Weber from the USA, Leontine Sagan and Leni Riefenstahl from Germany, Nina Niovilla and Franciszka Themerson from Poland." According to the author quoted here, the contemporary female directors operated on the fringes of the avant-garde film, and above all, outside its system that was being developed in the 1930s.

What's more, later they began to be disapproved of in such high positions as director or producer. This is how Anna Nacher says about it: "in the 1930s - after a series of upheavals and transformations that led to the crystallization of a system with huge studies (...) and a huge budget - women began to disappear from sight where it was about taking decision. One of the few exceptions here was, for example, Dorothy Arzner, who was the only American director in the 1930s and 1940s.

Paige Brunsen expresses it a little more forcefully when she says that "since the momentum for big business was noticed in cinematography, women have been pushed into the shadows, with negative long-term consequences." How does he argue this? According to this author, until the 1920s, the film was treated more as a form of independent art, while the entire system related to cinematography was yet to be created. At that time, the idea was to create this art, not the opportunities to earn from it. And at that time, the role of many women was really important. Anyway, we can give the floor to the editor of the Motion Picture Supplement, who wrote in 1915 about the role of women in the film at that time:

"None of the actions undertaken by women are as impressive as those within the film industry, which in its early stages created a new and powerful art in which the fair sex is so much an active factor that no single occupation can be identified, either on the side of art and an industry in which women would not be visibly involved. In cinemas, studios and even on the stock exchange, where films are sold and distributed, gender equality is implemented like in no other profession for which women fought for the right to practice at the beginning of the 20th century ”(Ostrowska, p. 164).

Paige Brunsen also notes, following fellow author Ally Acker, that "more women held prominent behind-the-scenes positions prior to 1925 than at any other time in the next 50 years." As proof of this, Alicia Malone gives a statistic: Between 1912 and 1919, Universal employed 7 female directors who made 170 films in total. By contrast, from the mid-1920s until 1982, Universal recruited no woman for the position (Malone, 21). Anthony Slide, in his 1977 book, wrote in a similar vein that "there were more female directors in the American film industry by 1920 than in any later period in history" (Ostrowska, p. 164).

With the advent of the era of sound movies, women had to face what has been referred to as the Hollywood Studio System. Hollywood cinematography has become increasingly centralized. Control over this growing business was practically taken over by a few of the largest labels, with which independent producers simply did not stand a chance. This explains the disappearance of the producers from the scene. But why couldn't women breakthrough in major film studios?

This, in turn, was related to the understanding of the roles proper to men and women at the time. According to Alicia Malone, women were not seen as sufficiently business-oriented at the time, which meant that the positions they occupied were gradually passed on to men. And how were men and women perceived differently then, and most importantly, how were film studios of the time perceived? First of all, women were thought of as future mothers, which meant that they were even treated as temporary workers. This was especially true of married women. This also translated into the number of earnings, as it was believed that men should be paid more as it was expected that they would become the sole breadwinners of the family.

Paige Brunsen mentions a significant change in this context: from producers and directors, women have been reduced to the roles of studio girls. Paige Brunsen even lists the roles in which women could then be employed in the film industry, including actresses, assistants to artistic directors, designers, dance instructors, pianists, scriptwriters, and hairdressers. The artistic management, costume design, hairdressing, and make-up departments began to be referred to as "the pink ghettos."

Interestingly, and what is also emphasized by Paige Brunsen, compared to the years 1911-1920 in the years 1921-1930, more screenwriters were employed in the film industry, women were not ousted from this role. In the years 1911-1920, women were mentioned in this capacity in the case of 1,077 films, which then constituted slightly more than 20%, while in the years 1921-1930 there were already 1,489 such films, i.e. almost 25%. The author states that the reason for this is that the work of the screenwriters was treated more like the work "behind the scenes" of the film. On the other hand, as Anna Nacher remembers in "Moving Picture Magazine" in an article entitled The new profession of women included the following thesis: "women - as more skilled in the art of writing (eg letters) are ideal authors of film scripts" (Nacher, p. 73).

It is impossible to write about the role of women in the early days of the film industry without mentioning the character of Alice Guy-Blaché. This future director and producer, born in 1875 in Paris, was to turn out to be a pioneer on many levels. Elżbieta Ostrowska recalls that her father, who was a bookseller, instilled in her a passion for art and literature. In her youth, she attended stenotype courses. When her father died, she managed to find a job at Léon Gaumont's company, which was producing photographic equipment at the time. It was there in 1895 that Louis Lumière presented his cinematograph. Alice was fascinated by this invention and asked Gaumont for permission to make a short film with it.

This is how it was based on the French fairy tale of the wizard La fee aux choux, which was presented in 1896 at the International Exhibition in Paris. This gives Alice Guy an unquestionable priority in the context of female directors, and, according to some authors, even directors in general. In 1906, she made an important film: La Passion ou la Vie de Notre Seigneur Jesus-Christ, which is often mistakenly attributed to Victorin Jasset (Ostrowska, p. 168). At the end of her activity in France, she experimented with various technical innovations, for example, she tried to use a chromophore that made it possible to record sound.

In 1906 she met her future husband, Herbert Blaché, with whom she left for the USA in 1907. There, at first, Alice only looked after their daughter Simone, but in 1910 she founded The Solax Company with her own funds. The company produced about 325 films in the years 1910-1914. Alice herself has completed about 35 of them. In total, she made about 300 films, including even one of the science-fiction genre: In the Year 2000 from 1912. The only sad fact is that the vast majority of films made by her in Solax itself have not survived to our times.

Unfortunately, Alice Guy-Blaché was one of those women who fell victim to the emerging Hollywood "system". Unable to continue her activity in the USA, in 1922 she returned to France for a few years, but she also failed to continue there. In 1927, she returned to the United States, but only engaged in educational activities. It is also worth mentioning that she was the first director to be honored with the Order of the Legion of Honor. Check also the articles about women in world history collected here.

Lois Weber's film output is extremely rich. Her name as an actress, producer, director, or screenwriter can be found in around 400 films. Before she started filming, she was a pianist, and at the end of the 19th century, she was also active in evangelization. In 1905, she began her acting career, joining a traveling theater company. She also married the manager of this group, Phillips Smalley. For two years she only looked after the house, and in 1908 she was employed by the Gaumont Film Studio.

Originally, Lois Weber treated the film as a tool of evangelization, but often in her films, she raised controversial topics. She touched upon issues of prejudice and racial prejudice, but also issues related to divorce and even birth control, including abortion. Her films were often censored or their distribution made difficult. In her 1914 film - Hypocrites - the main character appears naked in one of the scenes. According to some sources, it was even Lois Weber herself, because she could not find an actress who would like to play in this scene. Consequence: Ohio banned the distribution of the film, and the mayor of New York ordered that clothing be painted over each cage. On the other hand, when in Where are my children? in 1916 raised the issue of birth control, while condemning abortion, the film was denied distribution rights by the Philadelphia Censorship Office. It was only additional publicity for the film: it grossed Universal almost $ 3 million.

Lois Weber worked for Universal from 1916, and in 1917 decided to start Lois Weber Production. Success after success. Suffice it to say, when Paramount hired her in 1920, she was offered $ 55,000 for each film and half the profits of the production. She was foretold of a bright future in the age of sounds. However, the expectations of the audience, which increasingly wanted simple entertainment, have changed, so Weber's films no longer find fertile ground. She tried to return to the industry several times, but to no avail, and for example, her "racist-focused film White Heat (1934) was considered anachronistic and completely devoid of humor" (Ostrowska, p. 176).

Bibliography:

• P. Brunsen, Female Filmmakers in the 1920s, https://digitalcommons.colum.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=libraryresearch, accessed 09/23/2021.
• A. Malone, Backwards & In Heels: The Past, Present, and Future of Women Working in Film, Mango Publishing Group, Coral Gables 2018.
• A. Nacher, Jodie Foster - negotiator on the other side of the camera (in :) M. Radkiewicz (ed.), Cinema Directors. Tradition and the Present, Rabid, Krakow 2005.
• E. Ostrowska, A Woman's Voice in Silent Cinema (in :) M. Radkiewicz (ed.), Cinema Directors. Tradition and the Present, Rabid, Krakow 2005.
• E. Wejbert-Wąsiewicz, Women's films. Changes turn and the "glass ceiling" in Polish cinematography before and after 1989, "Sztuka and Dokumentacja", No. 13/2015.

Did Baba Yaga really exist? Enriquet Marti and Ripolles - the murderer of children from Barcelona

 Do you think Baba Yaga is a fictional character? If so, now you can make big eyes. Baba Yaga really existed and was called Enriqueta Marti i Ripolles. The woman lived in Barcelona, ​​where she murdered innocent children. Later, she used their bodies to prepare very expensive lotions, medicines, and cosmetics for rich people. Read the story about the real Baba Yaga, thanks to which you will not fall asleep at night.

Enriqueta Marti i Ripolles was born in 1868 in the seaside town of Sant Feliu de Llobregat (Spain). When she was in her teens, she moved to Barcelona - there was a greater chance of finding a job there. It was in Barcelona that Enriqueta became interested in herbalism and began to learn about the properties of some medicinal herbs. At first, the girl could not find herself a job in the big city, but over time she managed to find a part-time job as a servant. Later, she also worked as a carer for the children of wealthy families. Enriquet, however, wanted more money than she was getting from her employers. That's why she decided to change the industry and became ... a prostitute. Sometimes she earned money in the streets, and sometimes she wandered around brothels, taking all the jobs that came up. Money was easy and fast, which suited the young woman very much.

When Enriqueta was 27, she fell in love with a Barcelona painter named Juan Pujalo. The man was charmed by the woman, but he didn't like one thing. His beloved was interested not only in him but also in other men. After all, he did marry Enriqueta. He loved her. It quickly turned out, however, that the woman, despite her marriage, did not intend to give up other men. She was unfaithful to Juan and continued to cling to strangers, especially rich bachelors. From time to time, she also made extra work in well-known brothels, which Juan learned about one day. Before the couple finally divorced, the marriage broke up and broke up six times.

Enriquet did not seem to care about the unsuccessful relationship with the painter. She continued to use her body for profit, amassing more and more money. However, she still could not satisfy her huge appetite for fortune. Enriquet Marti and Ripolles had a terrifying idea one day. She decided to look for wealthy clients with specific sexual needs. These clients were looking for experiences that ordinary prostitutes could not provide them. Enriquet decided to fulfill their demonic whims. She dealt with pimping.

The woman is no longer a prostitute. From now on, it was she who set the work schedule for her "charges". During the day, she wandered around charity centers and children's homes, where she took the most scared and abandoned orphans. Dressed in rags, she took the children with her, ensuring that she would guarantee them a beautiful life. In the evenings, however, she made them go out into the street and fulfill the fantasies of picky customers. When a client was unhappy or a child tried to flee the street, Enriquet killed them. The woman still did not have enough money to bring orphans from clients. Enriquet also decided that it was a pity to just kill and abandon children when they were no longer needed. It was then that she remembered the herbal medicine she had loved to read about. The woman had a macabre idea. She decided to combine pimping with black magic, as well as healing people. She had managed to meet such a wealthy and influential clientele that they could all help to hide her terrifying, booming business. Enriquet knew all the disgusting secrets and perversions of the clients, so no one would let steam out of their mouths. That is why she "legally" started her bloody business.

What exactly did Enriquet do? She killed children who were no longer needed for prostitution. Sometimes, however, she did not have to do it - because the clients did it for her, permanently damaging the bodies of innocent, poor orphans who served them. Every dead child's body was worth its weight in gold to Enriqueta. She used the corpse to prepare various specifics, using, inter alia, from baby fat, hair, blood, bones, and skin. She made them a specialist powder and then used it to prepare all kinds of ointments, rejuvenating cosmetics, or potions to treat tuberculosis and venereal diseases.

The medicine of that time was not as developed as it is today. People were terrified of diseases and were looking for ways to prevent or treat them. When they heard about the miraculous properties of Enriqueta's drugs, they willingly spent exorbitant amounts of money just to get the medicine. The most valuable cosmetic was the skin aging cosmetic that Enriqueta prepared from… infant fat. Thanks to its magical characteristics, Enriqueta Marti and Ripolles gained a lot of rich clients. The king of Spain, Alfonso XIII, is said to have bought from her. To this day, however, it is not known whether this is real information or just rumors.

After some time, the inhabitants of Barcelona noticed that more and more children were dying in the city. The police searched for the perpetrator of the disappearances, but to no avail - they had no traces. In February 1912, Baba Yaga, as fellow businessmen started to talk about her, kidnapped her last victim - Teresita. The girl's parents quickly reported her missing to the police. The search has begun. A few days later Enriqueta's neighbor noticed Teresita with her shaved head in the window of her apartment. She went to the police station, where she told the policemen about everything. Uniforms, under the pretext of questioning Enriqueta for illegal possession of chickens in the house, entered her apartment. The discovery they made in it was perhaps the most terrifying of their entire police career.

The policemen found two girls in the apartment - one really turned out to be Teresita. The girls confessed to the police that Baba Yaga abused and starved them. Angelita (the second girl) also testified that a boy named Pepito lived with them. However, he was butchered by Enriqueta in front of Angelita. The girl, seeing this, got scared and ran to bed. When Enriqueta heard the noise, she immediately went to the girls' room. Angelita, however, pretended to be asleep.

In Baba Yaga's apartment were found, among others children's bones, jars with preserved parts of the body, a bloody bathtub, lotions, medications, and Enriqueta's magic decoctions. The woman, after coming home, was immediately arrested by the police. Interestingly, when Baba Yaga was brought to trial, she did not hear the murder charges at all. She was accused of… kidnapping and forgery of documents. Why? Apparently, the evidence of the crime was insufficient.

At this point, you are surely wondering - how is it possible that Enriqueta Marti and Ripolles have not been convicted of any murder? After all, she killed innocent children! True, times were completely different. The prosecutor was one of the most respected people in Barcelona at the time. He was afraid that other, high-ranking people - his friends - might be involved in the activity of Baba Yaga. What if he had to hold them accountable too? What if King Alfonso XIII himself were involved in the Enriqueta Marti and Ripolles case? Would he have to accuse him too? It would be a scandal for all of Spain. So the trial of Enriqueta was postponed for a very long time. Fortunately, the pimps, the Titanic sank in mid-April 1912. The eyes of all the people of the world then turned to America. Before they remembered the Enriqueta Marti and Ripolles case, the woman's file mysteriously disappeared.

Some say Baba Yaga was sentenced to an 11-month sentence and was sent to prison. On May 12, 1913, the woman died - she was murdered by her fellow prisoners, allegedly in the yard of the prison. The press, in turn, wrote that Enriqueta died of a then little-known disease - allegedly uterine cancer. Still, others believe she was killed by powerful people who used Enriqueta's services. They wanted the woman to be silent once and for all and take all their demonic secrets to the grave. To this day, it is not known what really happened to the Spanish Baba Yaga. It is certain, however, that she was the bloodiest murderer ever to operate in Barcelona.

Bibliography:

• Stukan Jarosław: Serial murderers, Estymator Publishing House, Warsaw 2021
• A. Czerwiński, K. Gradoń: Serial Killers, Muza Publishing House, Warsaw 2001