From Stonehenge to Kuyavian tombs - extraordinary megaliths of Europe and their creators

 Megalithic structures are the oldest surviving architectural structures in the world. Most European monuments of this type are dated between around 4000 and 2000 BC. There are also younger ones, from the Iron Age, and the oldest, which were made thousands of years earlier. Who and how could have built these monumental structures? What was their function?

Megalith is a general name that refers to all prehistoric and early-historic structures made of huge stones (megalith - Greek big stone). The common feature of these buildings is the raw material - rough or poorly processed stone blocks of large size and weight, not joined with mortar. Among these structures, however, we can distinguish buildings with multiple purposes and shapes. Here are the most frequently distinguished types of megaliths:

• Stone circles (kromlech) - are the most famous because of the popularity of Stonehenge in Great Britain. Kromlech is a Celtic name meaning curved stone. It refers to circles built of vertically arranged oblong boulders. Sometimes - as in the case of the famous Salisbury Plain circle - some of the stones may be additionally covered with equally impressive horizontal slabs.
• Dolmens - Small structures (usual tombs) on a rectangular plan. Made of several vertical stones covered with a large flat stone block.
• Menhirs - Huge blocks of stone, set upright and buried in the ground. Often the upper part has a conical end. They can stand separately or form a larger complex, e.g. arranged in rows.
• Tombs (burial mounds) - regardless of the funerary function of the v. structures there are different types of megalithic tombs in which the stone structure is covered with earth and sometimes supported by wooden elements. Due to their hill-like shape, they are called barrows (an old Turkish term for a fortress or fortification) or pyramids. The corridors consist of a corridor leading to the main chamber. Gallery corridors are very long underground corridors without an additional chamber. The box tombs are small tombs made of thin stones and covered with a mound. Stone-and-earth ones are built of compacted earth and stones and are reinforced with wooden scaffolding. Examples of the latter include Kuyavian tombs.

In addition, structures and structures made of large stones are often part of larger complexes, including places of worship or burial. At least some of the complexes could also function as prehistoric astronomical observatories, calendars, and temples. One function did not exclude others.

The largest number of megalithic structures in Europe are found in the British Isles, but can be found everywhere - from Ireland to Greece. Interestingly, many of them can also be seen in Poland. Here are some of the most famous European megalithic structures and complexes:

• Stonehenge - the most famous megalithic structure in Europe. It was formed in phases, probably between around 3100 and 2000 BC. It consists of an outer shaft, a larger circle formed by the so-called blue stones (bluestones), horseshoes made of larger troilite stones lead to the interior (two boulders covered with a third stone upright). The inner horseshoe is made of monumental tributes, about 9 meters high. An alley leads to the circle, originally also limited by a rampart.
• Carnac Megaliths - Found in Brittany (northwestern France) and even older than Stonehenge. Several thousand (according to archaeologists it could have been as many as 10 thousand originally) menhirs were arranged in rows here. Some of them weigh several tons. In addition to the rows of large stones, you can also come across dolmens and lonely obelisks. (Żemła-Siesicka A., 2019: p. 157)
• Dolmens of Antequera - one of the largest and oldest megalithic tombs in Europe. They can be seen in Andalucia, in the south of Spain. The two older ones - Menga and Viera arose probably between 3500 and 3000 BCE, the younger El Romeral dates back to about 2500 BCE. Menga is believed to be the largest known megalithic burial. The Menga Dolmen is classified as a gallery megalith because it has no internal structure. It is 16 meters long and 6 meters wide at its widest point. (Lozano Rodriguez J.A. et al., 2014: pp. 762-763)

Megalithic temples of Malta - Dated around 3600-2500 BC are some of the most remarkable monuments of megalithic architecture. The most famous building is the temple in Tarxien, on the outskirts of Valetta. It is not a tomb. It consists of pairs of semicircular chambers, which are connected with other corridors. The chambers are arranged from the largest (at the entrance) to the smallest. Inside, some walls are decorated with floral motifs. (cf. Ingpen R. A., 2000: p. 15)

• Kuyavian tombs - are an important monument of megalithic architecture in Poland. Their creation is estimated at 3700-2500 BCE. Their largest clusters are located near the settlements of Wietrzychowice and Sarnowo, near Izbica Kujawska. The tombs are in the shape of isosceles trapezoids, from the front base 8-10 m wide to the end of about 2 m. The arms can extend up to 150 m. In front of the tomb, the walls were made of the largest boulders, descending towards the end base. From the outside, the tombs are covered with an earthen and stone sheathing. (Żemła-Siesicka M.: p. 158) 

There are several larger clusters of megalithic structures or individual megaliths in Europe. Large clusters are found in northern France and the British Isles. However, in fact, most European countries can boast of some megalithic monuments. In Ukraine, the so-called The Stone Tomb (Ukr. Kamyan Mohyla) is a remnant of the early Neolithic culture, although boulders were placed here at least until the Middle Ages. Other places of large concentrations of megaliths can be found in France: dolmens and menhirs from 5000 years ago are found in large numbers in Languedoc, apart from this important point on the map are the previously mentioned megaliths from Brittany. Megaliths in the British Isles are well researched and very varied. The highest density of this type of building is in Ireland. Megaliths in Portugal and southern Spain (including the aforementioned dolmens from Andalusia) are distributed not so densely but over an impressively large area. Going further southeast, we find large clusters in Corsica, smaller ones in Sicily, and the megalithic temples in Malta described above. Megalithic structures not fully explored are also found on the Greek islands of the Aegean Sea. They are probably slightly later than their counterparts in France and Spain, and to this day they are a mystery to architects and archaeologists. These include, inter alia, the so-called dragon houses that can be found on Evia Island. In Greece, the megalithic style also includes, for example, cyclopean walls from the Mycenaean period. In the past, it was believed that the builders of monumental walls made of huge boulders were giant cyclops, hence the name.

As I mentioned earlier, the remains of megalithic structures are also found in Poland. First of all, they are tombs in the form of barrows. We also have our own stone circles in Pomerania. These, however, are later - they come from the Iron Age. Their creators were probably the Goths.

We cannot ignore the fact that megaliths are not confined to Europe. They can be found all over the world. Some of the oldest and most impressive are in the Middle East. We can't piece the history of these amazing structures together without taking them into account.

It is commonly assumed that the first builders of these structures were representatives of the early Stone Age (Neolithic) cultures. The transition from nomadic to sedentary life after the introduction of agriculture allowed people to collaborate in the planning and construction of huge buildings. Long-term use and consistent expansion of some megalithic complexes prove that a given culture has remained in one place for thousands of years.

The second important factor that could have influenced the flourishing of megalithic architecture was social divisions. Diversification of performed functions, i.e. priest, priestess, warriors, leaders, etc., prompted people to create temples and impressive tombs. There was someone to create for (eg princes), there was someone to plan for (some elites could explore the geometry and position of heavenly bodies), and there was also someone to do physical work (the appearance of "peasants" and slaves).

Most of the buildings from this period are clearly planned to fulfill a certain astronomical function. Part of this could be related to beliefs regarding, for example, the wandering of souls. However, stone circles or dolmens could also be a kind of calendar regulating agricultural work during the year.

When we look at powerful megalithic structures, we wonder how they did it. Huge blocks of stone are not only arranged as intended but often transported kilometers from where they were obtained. In addition, most of the megaliths are thoughtfully positioned relative to the sky and astronomical phenomena. For example, dolmens in the Iberian Peninsula are most often oriented eastwards and positioned so that the sun falls into them perpendicularly on the summer solstice or the autumn and vernal equinoxes. (cf. Lozano Rodriguez J. A. et al .: p. 768) The asymmetric structure of these structures is the best proof that their builders knew exactly what they were doing. They did not care for simple symmetry, but for the function they were to perform. Equally precise is the alignment of the tools (dome tomb) in New Grange (Ireland). Dating from around 3000 B.C. tolos is oriented in such a way that during the winter solstice (December 21) the rays reach their farthest recesses. Researchers speculate that this had something to do with prehistoric beliefs about the association of souls with heaven or the sun. (Hoskin M., 2007: p. 15)

The tombs and Temples of the first farmers, which seem primitive at first glance, hide the secrets of long-forgotten knowledge. When we realize what skills and work our distant ancestors had to put into their construction, perhaps we will look at the earliest history of Europe differently. The richness and diversity of these structures are surprising to this day.

Bibliography:

• Anna Żemła-Siesicka, Megalithic landscapes. An attempt to define the notion and location in landscape typologies, in work 42 (2) 2019, 147-174
• Jose Antonio Lozano Rodriguez et al., Prehistoric engineering and astronomy of the great Menga Dolmen (Málaga, Spain). A geometric and geoarchaeological analysis, in Journal of Archaeological Science, January 2014, pp. 759-771
• Robert A. Ingpen, Encyclopedia of mysterious places: the life and legends of ancient sites around the world, New York 2000
• History of Astronomy, ed. Michael Hoskin, WUW 2007