At the beginning of the 20th century, people were enthusiastic about new discoveries and technologies. Some have made our lives easier, and others turned out to be a dead end. Before this was known, many people lost their health or their lives. The fashion for radioactive supplements and gadgets has ended in a particularly tragic way.
Uranus was known as a rock in late antiquity. It was used to color the glass yellow. It was recognized as an element in 1789 in honor of the planet discovered a few years earlier. In 1896, the French physicist Henri Becquerel conducted an experiment that opened a whole new department of science. He detected that the uranium salt was leaving dark spots on the otherwise darkened photographic plate. Not - as previously assumed - after exposure, but on its own. Thus, he identified the radioactive element. Two years later, a pair of young physicists, Piotr Curie and Maria Skłodowska-Curie began working on the phenomenon. Fascinated by research into uranium radiation, they began to look for other elements with similar properties. Their most important discovery was radium, which had a relatively high radiation power, and at the same time was quite stable (as opposed to polonium). Maria Skłodowska called him "my beautiful advice". It was this element that became the subject of interest of contemporary medicine and industry.
As early as the end of the 19th century, high hopes were placed on X-rays. In 1904, doctors discovered that the tumor shrinks rapidly when treated with radium salts. Radium therapy was soon introduced into hospitals. The effects of treating cancer with radium were superior to any known to date. Therefore, they aroused great enthusiasm. It was soon discovered that radium could also cause cancer and other serious tissue damage, but the fashion for commercial use of radiation had already gained momentum.
If something cures cancer, it must be a miracle cure for everything - right? The element radiating energy similar to solar by itself attracted the attention of American entrepreneurs as soon as it became available. It began to be added to various products. One of the most famous was water with radium - Radhitor (more on that later). Radium salts were also added to creams to rejuvenate the skin, powders, ointments, and even to drinks and sweets.
Interestingly, even before the commercial career of radium, the first researchers discovered that it could be dangerous to health. Maria and Pierre Curie had health problems but refused to admit that their source was radiation. Austrian-American entrepreneur Sabin Arnold von Sochocky, owner of a factory of radioluminescent watches, damaged the fingers of his right hand until they had to be amputated. Thomas Edison was also aware of the dangers when he was given a small sample of radium for radiation research. Thus, the commercial frenzy did not develop in total ignorance and without warning. On the other hand, the first clinical effects of anti-cancer therapy were promising. Despite the caution of some researchers, the scale of the threats was not realized either.
The starting point for enthusiasm for therapy with radium and its derivatives was the so-called radiation hormesis. According to one theory, exposure of the body to small doses of ionizing radiation has a beneficial effect on the immune system. This theory has been studied to this day without a clear conclusion. However, long-term exposure to radioactive substances (also in the form of a gas-radon) may increase the incidence of certain types of cancer.
In addition to cosmetics and dietary supplements with added radium salts and derivatives, radium was used in spa centers, swimming pools, and special inhalators.
Some Terazpie is still used today. Not only to fight cancer but also in sanatorium centers. At the beginning of the 20th century, the biggest problem was the lack of established safe doses of radiation. As a result, many products contained really dangerously high doses.
Energy drinks aren't the healthiest. When eaten too often, they can cause heart disease and even a heart attack. However, the effects of overusing Radithor's "miracle" tonic were much more drastic. But let's start from the beginning.
The story of William J. Bailey is somewhat reminiscent of the not-so-old Elizabeth Holmes scandal - unfortunately much more dangerous for his clients. He studied medicine at Harvard, but dropped out of school and started manufacturing patented radium supplements. One of the popular but expensive supplements was Radithor radioactive water, which was supposed to add energy and increase potency.
The most famous victim of the drug was the American industrialist and athlete Eben Byers. Interestingly, a doctor recommended water to him after Byers injured his arm while falling from a couchette on a night train. The producer of Radithor offered 1/6 of the profits for every product prescribed to patients. As he pretended to be a medical doctor, it was considered an innocent way to earn extra money for doctors. Byers drank water and radium several times a day, however, he stopped the treatment in 1930. He began to be seriously ill. His teeth fell out, and eventually, the entire lower jaw had to be removed. He died of cancer in 1932. This death was the impetus for the FDA to put more control over radium-containing supplements. The creator of Radithor himself died of cancer in 1949.
The appearance of radioluminescent paint on the market made it possible to create watches that were useful to American soldiers during the First World War. The Swiss were the first to apply this idea in their famous products. However, the real popularity of the idea gained in the United States. The paint allowed the dial to be seen but was invisible to the opponent from a distance. Today, fluorescent paints are most often used for similar purposes. At the beginning of the 20th century, undark was used - a paint containing zinc with the addition of radium (in the proportions - 30,000: 1 - see Silverstein K .: p. 34). After the end of the war, it was used not only for watches. The fascination with the phenomenon of radiation itself and the possible applications of radioactive isotopes made items glowing in the dark fashionable. There were glowing seat numbers for theaters and cinemas, dolls with glowing eyes, fishing hooks and many other gadgets. In addition, dye or radium salts were used for clothes, which gave off a greenish appearance.
The most famous victims of the frenzy for "radiant" gadgets were not the users, but the workers who painted the products. U.S. Radium Corporation was founded by two doctors, Sabina Arnold von Sochocky, from the Ukrainian part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, and George S. Willis. They were aware of the potential dangers of radioactive elements but ignored them. The need for glow-in-the-dark dials (also in airplanes and cars) during World War I made the company grow a lot. She also began producing radium herself, using carnotite mined in Colorado. After the war, the demand for watches with luminous hands for civilians increased. Their low price and widespread availability allowed every middle-class American to participate in the birth of a new era. In 1919 alone, U.S. Radium Corporation has produced 2.2 million of such gadgets.
The dials were hand-painted by women of all ages employed for this occasion. Most often young - between 16 and 20 years of age. Few have worked here for more than two years. The first unlucky employee was Mollie Maggia, who started painting watches in 1917 at the age of 20 and stayed in the factory for the next four years. She had to quit when her health deteriorated so much. Her teeth began to fall out and her joints were experiencing pain. In 1922, her jaw began to degrade until it had to be removed. Later that same year, she died. This first recorded case of a radiation victim was not recognized at the time. Mollie had syphilis on his death certificate, although previous research has shown that he does not suffer from the disease. Without a proper diagnosis, there was no alarm and more women started painting watches. The instructors themselves advised them to wet the end of the brush with saliva - then they would be more precise and they would paint more watches.
Just a few months before Mollie Maggia's death, another factory worker, Irene Rudolph, began experiencing similar symptoms. The dentists treating Irene stated that she had poisoned herself with the phosphorus added to the white paint. They even reported to the factory owner with an accusation. However, it turned out that the company never used phosphorus. Only then did the doctor mention radioactive paint. Indeed, workers were immediately forbidden to wet brushes in their mouths. During this time, Irene's condition worsened, and doctors notified the Department of Public Health, which began an investigation. Meanwhile, the symptoms appeared in other employees, another doctor came to the company, demanding support for treatment for his patient. Eventually, the company itself invited a team of doctors to investigate the matter.
The result was obvious - the factory and its workers literally glow with radium. At the same time, the consumer league was investigating. The owners of the company still refused to admit that this was the real cause. That would mean the end of a thriving business. Meanwhile, new cases arose. In 1925, a chemist working in the company's laboratory died. There was no doubt - his body, especially his lungs, was saturated with radioactive dust. The first article about the dangers of exposure to radioactive substances was received quite skeptically in the medical community. However, even the main opponent of combining radium with the deaths of factory workers, Dr. Frederick B. Flinn, after seeing a few cases, changed his mind. He admitted this in his 1927 article. More articles accusing the US Radium Corporation followed. Under these conditions, subsequent paint victims could apply for compensation.
However, it was the case of Byers that aroused real emotions. In fact, the death of the latter in 1932 ended the era of fascination with radioactive products. Their use has been limited and strict usage restrictions have been introduced. The era of the atom was just beginning, but it only gained new momentum after the discovery and description of nuclear fission in 1939.
Bibliography:
- Deborah Blum, The poisoner's handbook: murder and the birth of forensic medicine in Jazz Age New York, New York 2010
- Ross M. Mullner, Deadly glow: the radium dial worker tragedy, Washington 1999
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